UC-NRLF 


1 


Press  of 

A.  T.  DE  LA  MARE  PRINTING  AND  PUBLISHING  CO.  Ltd. 
New  York 


THE  AMERICAN 
CARNATION 


HOW   TO   GROW    IT 


ILLUSTRATED 


BY 

CHARLES    WILLIS    WARD 

i> 

Of  The  Cottage  Gardens,  Queens,  N.  Y. 


NEW    YORK 

A.  T.  DE  LA  MARE  PRINTING  AND  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

LTD. 

1903 


/  3 


Main  Lib. 
Agric.  Depfc 


Copyright,    1902 

BY  A.  T.  DE  LA  MARE  PRINTING  AND  PUBLISHING  CO.  Ltd. 
New   York' 


2>eMcation 

TO   THAT   WORTHY   BODY    OF    ENTHUSIASTS 

MY    FELLOW    MEMBERS    OF 
THE    AMERICAN    CARNATION    SOCIETY 

WHOSE  LOVE  OF  AND  DEVOTION  TO  THE 
DIVINE  FLOWER  HAVE  ENABLED  THEM 
TO  ACCOMPLISH  SO  MUCH  IN  SO  SHORT 
A  PERIOD  OF  TIME,  THIS  VOLUME  IS 
RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED 


271127 


PREFACE 

OME  five  or  six  years  since,  in  an  unguarded  moment,  I 
promised  my  friend,  Mr.  A.  T.  De  La  Mare,  President  of  the 
publishing  firm  which  bears  his  name,  that  1  would  write  a 
work  upon  the  American  Carnation.  I  scarcely  knew  at  the 
time  the  magnitude  of  the  task  which  I  had  so  lightly  agreed 
to  undertake,  and  did  not  recognize  it  until  the  work  was  under  way.  While 
keenly  appreciating  my  unfitness,  through  lack  of  the  necessary  early  training 
which  every  florist  should  have,  to  impart  practical  knowledge  to  my  fellow 
carnation  growers,  the  work  was,  nevertheless,  undertaken  with  an  earnest 
desire  to  do  the  carnation  fraternity  some  good,  as  well  as  to  increase  the 
interest  of  the  general  public  in  the  Divine  Flower.  During  the  twelve 
years  in  which  I  have  been  trying  to  learn  successful  carnation  culture, 
large  numbers  of  plants  and  flowers  have  been  grown,  and  a  small  fortune 
expended  in  experimental  work.  While  meeting  with  a  measure  of  success 
that  has  at  times  been  very  encouraging,  there  have  been  still  enough  serious 
failures  to  rob  the  work  of  much  of  its  pleasures. 

The  growing  of  carnations  was  commenced  merely  as  an  occupation 
by  means  of  which  to  while  away  time  which  hung  heavily  upon  my  hands, 
as  a  consequence  of  being  ordered  out  of  business  for  the  purpose  of 
recuperating  impaired  health,  and  at  first  little  thought  was  had  of  continuing 
it  as  a  permanent  employment.  However,  as  the  work  progressed  it  became 
more  and  more  interesting,  which  interest  was  especially  increased  by  the 
delightful  occupation  of  hybridizing  and  producing  new  varieties ;  and  I 
am  now  quite  satisfied  that  the  venture  has  contributed  largely  to  the  recovery 
of  my  health,  and  if  nothing  more  had  been  accomplished,  the  time,  energy 
and  capital  expended  have  been  well  repaid.  But  I  make  free  to  believe  that 
my  efforts  in  assisting  in  the  development  of  American  carnation  culture 
have  been  of  material  aid  to  the  craft.  It  is  unquestionably  true  that  many 
carnations  are  now  grown  where  one  was  grown  before,  and  larger  and  finer 
blooms  are  produced  and  sold  at  higher  prices  than  was  the  case  twelve 
years  ago;  and,  in  addition,  the  general  public  now  hold  the  Divine  Flower 
in  greater  esteem,  and  to  this  result  I  am  proud  to  believe  that  my  quota  of 
assistance  has  contributed. 


Preface 

This  book  has  been  prepared  under  somewhat  unfavorable  and  discour- 
aging circumstances,  as  during  the  period  of  work  much  unexpected  addi- 
tional labor  has  fallen  upon  my  shoulders,  materially  hindering  the  writing 
of  the  volume  and  doubtless  impairing  its  .value. 

To  Mr.  Alex.  Wallace,  Editor  of  The  Florists'  Exchange,  New  York, 
my  thanks  and  the  gratitude  of  the  readers  of  the  book  are  due  for  his 
efficient  aid  in  editing  the  original  manuscript  and  revising  proofs ;  also 
for  his  researches  into  the  early  history  of  the  carnation,  and  his  compilation 
and  correction  of  the  matters  contained  in  Chapter  I. 

To  Mr.  Charles  L.  Allen,  of  Floral  Park,  N.  Y.,  who  kindly  placed  at 
my  disposal  his  peerless  horticultural  library,  as  well  as  lending  generous 
aid  in  assisting  my  researches,  I  am  greatly  indebted  for  much  information 
regarding  the  ancient  culture  of  carnations. 

I  am  also  similarly  indebted  to  "The  Carnation,"  by  Thomas  Hogg, 
published  in  1830 ;  to  Don's  Gardeners'  Dictionary,  to  Nicholson's  Dictionary 
of  Gardening,  and  to  the  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture. 

To  Mr.  Fred  Dorner,  of  Lafayette,  Ind.,  the  Father  of  the  Carnation 
in  the  West;  to  that  good  old  horticulturist,  Mr.  Charles  Zeller,  of 
Flatbush,  Long  Island ;  to  Mr.  Eugene  Dailledouze,  son  of  Mr.  John 
Dailledouze,  of  the  old-time  firm  of  Dailledouze,  Zeller  &  Card,  of  Flatbush, 
N.  Y. ;  to  Mr.  Sewell  Fisher,  of  Framingham,  Mass.,  and  Mr.  William 
Swayne,  of  Kennett  Square,  Pa.,  I  am  indebted  for  information  and 
assistance  in  ascertaining  the  early  history  of  carnation  culture  in  America, 
and  for  many  valuable  suggestions  given  me  during  past  years.  I  am 
also  particularly  indebted  to  the  following  gentlemen,  who  have  so  kindly 
contributed  the  chapters  upon  cultural  methods  as  practiced  in  their 
immediate  localities :  Mr.  Peter  Fisher,  Ellis,  Mass. ;  Mr.  Richard 
Witterstartter,  Sedamsville,  O. ;  Mr.  E.  G.  Hill,  Richmond,  Ind.;  Mr. 
Henry  Weber,  Oakland,  Md. ;  Mr.  John  H.  Sievers,  San  Francisco,  Cal.  ; 
Mr.  W.  R.  Shelmire,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Mr.  Fred  Dorner,  Lafayette,  Ind. ; 
and  Mr.  John  H.  Dunlop,  Toronto,  Ontario. 

If  by  means  of  this  humble  effort  I  shall  have  succeeded  in  rendering 
my  brother  carnationists  material  aid,  and  shall  have  lightened  the  pathway 
of  those  enthusiasts  who  are  now  springing  up  and  becoming  lovers  of  and 
ardent  devotees  to  the  culture  of  the  Divine  Flower,  I  shall  be  satisfied  that 
the  volume  has  not  been  written  in  vain. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  CARNATION           .            .  17-30 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE    CARNATION    IN    AMERICA      .....  31-37 

CHAPTER  III. 

GENERAL  GREENHOUSE  CULTURE           .....  38-48 

Raising  Plants  from  Seed — Propagation  from  Cuttings     .  38 

Potting  Young  Carnation  Stock     .             .             .             .             .  39 
Planting   Carnations    in   the   Field — Preparing   Field   Soils — 

Cutting   back   or    Stopping           ....  40 
Preparation   of   Soil    for    Greenhouse    Culture — The    English 

Method — The    Field    Method            ....  41 

Filling  Benches — Benching  Carnations           ...  41 

Early    versus    Late    Lifting           .....  42 
Digging  Plants  from  Field — Selection  of  Stock  in  Digging 

— Planting  on  Benches       .             .             .             .  43 

Watering   the    Bench    after    Planting — Shading           .            .  44 

Cultivation  of  Soil  in  Benches — Staking  and  Tying            .  46 

Feeding  Benched  Plants — Stopping  or  Topping           .            .  47 

Disbudding — Insects  and  Fumigation — Diseases      .            .  48 

CHAPTER    IV. 

SOILS          .........  49-60 

Preparation  of  Soils  for  Bench   Culture      ...  50 

Preparation  of  Bench  Soils  in  the  Field            ...  52 

Composition  of  Potting  Soil  for  Young  Plants       .            .  53 

Sterilizing  Soils       .......  56 

CHAPTER   V. 

MANURES    AND    FERTILIZERS           .....  61-70 

What  Becomes  of  Our  Fertility?            ....  62 

Phosphoric    Acid            ......  64 

Potash            ........  65 

Liquid   Manures              ......  66 

Natural  Manures      .            .            .            .            .            .            .  69 

10 


Contents 


CHAPTER   VI. 

PROPAGATING  AND  SHIPPING  YOUNG  STOCK          .            .            .  71-86 

Like    Produces    Like           ......  71 

Propagating    House — Construction     of     Propagating    Bench  77 

Propagating    Mediums              .....  79 

Putting  the  Cuttings  in  the  Sand  Bench              ...  81 

Packing  Cuttings  for  Shipment           .             .             .             .  84 

Propagation    by    Layering             ......  85 

CHAPTER   VII. 

TREATMENT    OF     YOUNG     CARNATION     STOCK     PREPARATORY    TO 

PLANTING   OUT      ........  87-93 

Shifting          ........  89 

Pinching  Back  or  Stopping      .....  90 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

FIELD  CULTURE  OF  CARNATIONS          .....  94-101 

Cultivation  after  Planting         ....  97 

Stopping   Carnations   in  the  Field           ....  98 

CHAPTER    IX. 

LIFTING  AND  PLANTING  CARNATIONS  FROM  THE  FIELD      .           .  102-110 

Filling   the    Benches           .            .            .            .            .            .  102 

Marking  Out  the  Bench— Digging  the  Plants  from  the  Field  105 

Watering              .......  108 

Shading  the  Carnation  Houses  before  Planting             .             .  109 

CHAPTER    X. 

TREATMENT  AFTER  BENCHING  AND  UNTIL  THE   PLANTS  ARE  IN 

BLOOM           .            .            .            .            .            .            .            .  111-117 

Staking  or  Wiring              .             .             .             .             .             .  in 

Cultivation  of  Soils  on  Benches           .            .            .            .  114 

Disbudding                .            .            .            .            .            .            .  116 

CHAPTER    XI. 

PICKING,  PACKING  AND  SHIPPING  CARNATION  FLOWERS    .            .  118-126 

The  Bunch  Method  and  the  Box  Method          .            .            .  122 

CHAPTER   XII. 

INSECTS  AND  PREVENTIVES               .....  127-133 

Green  Fly      ........  127 

Red  Spider           .......  128 

Use  of  Salt  as  a  Preventive  of  Red  Spider        .            .            .  130 

Thrips       ........  131 

Cut  Worms               .             .             .             .             .             .             .  132 

Carnation   Stalk   Borer              ....                        .  133 


Contents 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DISEASES  AND  INJURIES              ...                         .            .  134-143 

Carnation    Rust              ....  135 
Spraying    Formulas    Which    Have    Been    Recommended  as 

Curative  Agencies  for  Rust — Carnation  Spot         .            .  137 

Fairy  Ring  Spot — Stem  Rot      .....  138 

Remedies  and  Preventives  for  Stem  Rot  141 

Bacteriosis            .            .            .                      •  .            .            .  ^ 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

PACKING  AND  SHIPPING  FIELD-GROWN  PLANTS          .            .            .  144-147 
Treatment  of  Field-Grown   Plants   When   Received  After   a 

Long  Shipment        ......  146 

CHAPTER   XV. 

FORCING  HOUSES  FOR  CARNATIONS       .....  148-160 

Aspect  of  Forcing  Houses         .            .            .            .            .  154 

New  Galvanized-Iron  U-Bar  Construction         .            .            .  159 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

BENCH   CONSTRUCTION           ......  161-169 

The  Ordinary  Wooden  Bench  Built  Upon  Posts — Posts          .  161 

Solid  Beds           .            .            .            .            .            ...  163 

The  Ventilated  Tile  Bench — The  Sub-Irrigation  Bench           .  164 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

SUB-IRRIGATION    .......  170-176 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

GREENHOUSE  HEATING               ......  177-188 

Hot-Water    Systems — The    Open    Expansion    Tank    Method  177 

The  Pressure  Method — Sectional  Boilers            .            .  178 
Firebox     or     Locomotive     Boiler — Horizontal     Tubular 

Boilers         .......  179 

The  Closed  or  Perkins  Method — The  Pump  Method     .  180 

Steam-Heating  Systems — The  Gravity  Method       .         .         .  182 

The  Positive  Return  Method        ....  183 

Pump  Exhaust — The  Vacuum  Method       .            .            .  185 

The  Single-Pipe  Method — Types  of  Steam  Boilers       .  186 

Fuels — Bituminous  Coal — Anthracite       ....  187 

Coke — Crude  Petroleum  or  Fuel  Oil       .            .            .  188 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

CARNATIONS  FOR  SUMMER  BLOOMING  AND  POT  CULTURE      .            .  189-195 

Bedding  Carnations        ......  190 

Hardy  Carnations — Carnations  for  Pot  Culture            .            .  191 

Top  Dressing       ........  193 


Contents 


CHAPTER  xx. 

RAISING  CARNATIONS  FROM   SEED — CROSS  BREEDING  AND  FERTIL- 
IZING     .........  196-217 

Introducing  New  Varieties  Into  Commerce             .            .  212 

The  Growing  of  New  Varieties               ....  216 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

VARIOUS  CLASSIFICATIONS  OF  THE  CARNATION — TRAITS  AND   PE- 
CULIARITIES— SPORTS  AND  VARIATIONS— SEED  SPORTS               .  218-225 

CHAPTER   XXII. 

THE   IDEAL   CARNATION             ......  226-231 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  CARNATION — WHO  SHALL  GROW  CARNATIONS 
— PROFITS   OF   CARNATION     GROWING — DOES    IT    PAY    TO    Do 

THINGS  WELL?       .......  232-238 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 

MONTHLY  CALENDAR  OF  OPERATIONS              ....  239-246 

CHAPTER   XXV. 

THE  AMERICAN  CARNATION  SOCIETY         ....  247-256 

American  Carnation  Nomenclature          .            .            .            .  251 

CHAPTER   XXVI. 

CARNATION  CULTURE  IN  DIFFERENT  GEOGRAPHICAL  LOCALITIES  ON 
THE     NORTH     AMERICAN     CONTINENT,     WITH     BIOGRAPHICAL 

SKETCHES  OF  THE  WRITERS          .....  257-290 

Carnation  Culture  in  Lafayette,  Ind.         ....  257 

Frederick  Dorner            ......  259 

Carnation  Culture  in  Massachusetts       ....  260 

Peter  Fisher       .......  265 

Carnation  Culture  in  Richmond,  Indiana            .             .             .  266 

Edward  Gurney  Hill     ......  269 

Carnation  Culture  in  the  Mountains       ....  270 

Henry  Weber     ......  273 

Carnation   Culture  in  Ohio         .            .  274 

Richard    Witterstaetter             ....  278 

Growing  Carnations  in  the  South          .  279 

Warren  R.  Shelmire     ....  281 

Carnation  Culture  in   California  281 

John  H.   Sievers           .            .  283 

Carnation  Culture  in  Canada       .  284 

John  H.   Dunlop           .            .  288 

Charles    Zeller        .            .  289 

John    Dailledouze           ......  290 

13 


COLORED    PLATES 

Facing  Page 

Plate  I. — Seedling  Carnations    (Ward)  ....  48 

Plate  II. — Seedling    Carnations    (Ward)  ....     128 

Plate  III. — Carnation   Prosperity   (Miles)        ....  176 

Plate  IV. — Carnation  Mrs.  T.  W.  Lawson  (Fisher)  .  .  .     240 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Charles  Willis  Ward         .....     Frontispiece 

Original  Single  Carnation  and  Its  Development  into  a  Double  Flower       19 

An   English  Bizarre   Carnation       .            .            .            .            .  -23 

Carnation  Governor  Roosevelt   ......  26 

Carrying  the  Plants  to  the  Greenhouse       .            .            .            .  -30 

An  Artistic  Decoration  with  Carnations            ....  32 

Establishment  of  Dailledouze  Bros.,  Flatbush,  N.  Y.       .            .  .       33 

Views  at  the  Cottage  Gardens  Range,  Queens,  N.  Y. — Lord  &  Burn- 
ham  Co.  Construction           ......  35 

A    California    Carnation    Field        .             .             .             .             .  -36 

The  J.  D.  Thompson  Carnation  Co.  Range,  Joliet,  111.         .            .  37 

House  of  Carnation  Governor  Roosevelt  Just  Planted            .  .       42 

House  of  Carnation  Governor  Roosevelt  Just  Coming  into  Bloom  .  45 
Bench   of    Carnation    Governor    Roosevelt — Illustrating    Combination 

Method  of  Supports       .            ...            .            .            .  .46 

Soil  Sterilizer — Steam  Pipes  in  Position  Ready  for  Filling  in  Soil  55 
Header              .........       57 

Soil  Sterilizer  in  Operation       ......  58 

Soil  Sterilizer  in  Operation— Sterilizing  Soil  on  the  Bench        .  .       59 

Abnormal  Development — Cohering  of  Petals  ....  69 

Desirable  and   Undesirable  Cuttings          .            .            .            .  -72 

Propagating  Wood           .......  74 

Propagating  Bench  Shaded  with  Curtains            .             .             .  -75 

Short  Span  to  South  Propagating  House — Interior  View      .            .  76 

Brick-bottomed   Propagating  Bench            .             .             .             .  -78 

Short  Span  to  South  Propagating  House — Extefior  View     .            .  79 

Tool  for  Firming  Sand         .            .            .            .            .            .  .80 

Putty  Knife            .            .            .            .            .            .            .            .  81 

Young  Carnation  Plant  in  2-inch  Pot  Ready  for  Shifting      .  .       90 

Carnation   Plants   Ready   for   Planting  in    Field        ...  91 

A  New  York  Wholesale   Florist's   Window        .            .            .  -93 

Showing  Method  of  Stopping  Plants  in  Pots            ...  99 

14 


Illustrations 

PAGE 

Carnation  Enchantress — Single  Bloom  .....  101 

Soil  Sterilizer  in  Position — Filling  the  Bench  .  .  .  103 

The  Carnation  Field — Ready  for  Lifting  ....  104 

Digging  the  Plants  from  the  Field  .  .  .  .  106 

The  Same  Field  Ten  Minutes  After  Digging  Was  Commenced  .  107 

Setting  Carnation  Plants  on  the  Bench  ....  109 
Carnation  Viola  Allen — Single  Bloom  .  .  .  .  .no 
Illustrating  Wire  Ring  Supports  .  .  .  .  .112 

Illustrating  End  Supports  of  Iron  for  Stretching  Wire  .  .  113 
Bench  of  Carnation  William  Scott — Illustrating  Supporting  with  Wire 

Netting,  and  Wire  and  String       .  .  .  .  .115 

Carnation    Prosperity — Single    Bloom        .            .            .            .            .  117 

A  Wholesale  Grower's  Flower  Room     .  .  .  .  .119 

Bunch  of  Carnations  with  Name  Tag     .....  121 

Case  of  Carnation  Blooms — Illustrating  Box  Method  of  Shipping    .  123 

Interior  of  a  Wholesale  Florist's  Store  in  New  York  City        .            .  124 

Red    Spider             ........  129 

Thrips    Tabaci             ........  131 

Carnation  Leaves  Affected  with  Fusarium  Leaf-spot           .            .  140 

Carnation  Leaves  Affected  with  Bacteriosis       ....  142 

Carnation    Plants    Packed    for    Shipment        ....  145 

Original  Type  of  Sash  House  Used  for  Growing  Carnations  .  .  148 
Section  of  Three-quarter  Span  Carnation  House — Hitchings  &  Co. 

Construction    .            .            .            .            .            .            .            .  149 

Section   Showing  Latest  Type  of  Carnation  House — Lord  &  Burn- 
ham  Co.  Construction     .......  151 

A  Canadian  Carnation  Range — J.  H.  Dunlop,  Toronto  .  .  152 

A  Canadian  Carnation  Range — The  Dale  Estate,  Brampton,  Ont.  .  153 
Interior  View  of  Carnation  House,  Briarcliff  Farms,  Ossining,N.  Y. — 

Hitchings  &  Co.,  Builders    ......  155 

House  of  Carnation  Enchantress  in  a  Western  Establishment     .          .  156 

Even-span    Propagating   House — Exterior  View        .            .            .  158 

New  Galvanized-Iron  U-Bar           ......  159 

Type  of  U-Bar  Semi-Curvilinear  Roofed  Carnation  House — Pierson- 

Sefton   Co.,   Builders             ......  160 

End  of  Wooden  Bench        .            .            .            .            .            .            .  162 

Cross-Section  of  Solid  Bed         ......  163 

Iron  Bearer  for  Sub-Irrigation  Bench       .....  165 

Cross-Section  Sub-Irrigation  Bench       .....  166 

Sub-Irrigation  Bench  Ready  for  Cementing         ....  167 

Sub-Irrigation  Benches  Ready  for  Irrigating  Tile — Built  on  Sloping 

Ground             ........  168 

Sub-Irrigation  Benches — Testing  the  Cement  Tanks  .  .  171 

Section  of  Sub-Irrigation  Bench — Showing  Root  System  of  Plants'  173 

Sub-Irrigation  Tile — Showing  Root  System  of  Plants  .  .  174 
St:b-Irrip:ation  Bench — Showing  Manner  of  Laying  Terra  Cotta 

Foundation  and  Protecting  Supporting  Columns  175 

15 


Illustrations 

PAGE 

Cross-Breeding  and  Fertilizing — Illustrating  Reproductive  Organs       .  196 

Hybridizing  Tools             .......  198 

Types   of  Good   Calyces        .......  200 

A  Bursted  Carnation       .......  202 

A  Vase  of  Selected  Seedlings       ......  203 

Carnations  Governor  Roosevelt,  Mrs.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Adonis  and 

Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson     ......  205 

Freak  Carnation  Flowers      .......  207 

Bizarre   Seedling — Single  Bloom            .....  208 

Bizarre  Seedling — Single  Bloom     ......  209 

Fancy  Varieties — Viola  Allen,   Judge   Hinsdale,    Mrs.    Bradt,    Fancy 

Seedling  ......  .211 

White  Varieties — Shasta,  White  Seedling,  Alba,  Lizzie  McGowan       .  213 
Yellow  Varieties — Golden  Beauty,  Fancy,  Yellow  Seedling,  Novelty, 

Golden   Eagle              ...                        .  215 

The  Cottage  Gardens  Carnation  Range  in  a  Blizzard      .            .            .  220 

House  of  Carnation  Harry  Fenn           .            .  223 

Old  English  Types  of  Ideal  Picotees  and  Carnations       .            .            .  228 

Portrait — Frederick   Dorner        .            .  259 
"       —Peter  Fisher           ....                                     .265 

"       — Edward  Gurney  Hill              .            .  269 
—Henry   Weber        ...                                                 .274 

—Richard  Witterstaetter                                     .  278 

—Warren   R.   Shelmire       .            .                        ...  281 

"       — John  H.  Sievers           .            .            .  283 

—John  H.  Dunlop     .                                                                         .  288 

—Charles  Zeller  .            .  289 

"       — John    Dailledouze                          .                        ...  290 


CHAPTER  I 

The  Origin  and  Early  History  of  the  Carnation 

THE  carnation,  Dianthus   Caryophyllus,  erroneously  called  "Pink"  by 
many  people,  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe.     As  found  in  its  wild 
state,  it  is  a  half  hardy  herbaceous  perennial,  growing  about  two  feet 
in  height.   The  original  flower  was  either  of  flesh  color  or  a  shade  of  pinkish 
mauve.     It  was  a  single  bloom,  about  one  inch  in  diameter,  composed  of 
five  broad  petals.     Its  natural  period  of  blooming  in  the  feral  state  is  from 
June  to  August. 

The  carnation  is  abundant  in  Normandy,  France,  and  it  is  believed  by 
some  writers  that  it  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  from  that  country.  So 
recently  as  1874,  Ellacombe  found  it  covering  the  old  castle  of  Falaise,  in 
which  William  the  Conqueror  was  born.  It  is  found  in  England  on  many 
of  the  old  castles  of  Norman  construction ;  and  the  same  writer  is  of  the 
belief  that  it  was  introduced  there  "  by  the  Norman  builders,  perhaps,  as  a 
pleasant  memory  of  their  Norman  houses ;  though  it  may  have  been  acci- 
dentally introduced  with  the  Normandy  (Caen)  stone,  of  which  part  of  the 
castles  are  built." 

The  history  of  the  carnation  antedates  the  time  of  Christ,  as  it  was 
mentioned  and  described  by  Theophrastus  as  long  ago  as  300  years  B.  C. 
Theophrastus  gave  the  genus  the  name  of  Dianthus,  from  the  Greek  dios, 
divine,  and  anthos,  flower.  The  specific  name,  Caryophyllus,  from  the  Greek 
Caryon,  meaning  nut,  and  Phyllon,  meaning  leaf,  was  undoubtedly  taken 
from  the  name  of  the  clove  tree  (Caryophyllus  aromaticus),  and  applied  to  the 
species  because  of  the  clove-like  fragrance  of  its  blooms.  The  common 
name,  carnation,  is  generally  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  carnis, 
flesh,  and  refers  to  the  flesh-colored  flowers  of  the  original  type.  Old  writers, 
however,  particularly  those  of  the  sixteenth  century,  allude  to  the  plant  as  the 
"Coronation,"  having  reference  to  the  employment  of  the  flowers  in  the 
classic  coronae,  or  chaplets ;  or,  as  Lyte  has  it,  from  "the  flowers  dented,  or 
toothed  above — like  to  a  littell  crownet." 


The  Origin  and  Early  Histor}^  of  the  Carnation 

Spencer,  in  his  Shepherd's  Calendar,  says : 

"Bring  hither  the  pink  and  purple  columbine  with  gilliflowers ; 
Bring  coronations  and  soppes-in-wine,  worn  of  paramours." 

In  Chaucer's  time,  the  flower  was  named  clove  gill-flower,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved the  plant  was  in  cultivation  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
and  at  that  period  was  commonly  used  to  give  a  spicy  flavor  to  ale  and  wine. 
In  Chaucer's  works  occurs  the  following: 

"There  springen  herbes,  grete  and  smale ; 
The  licoris  and  the  set-ewale, 

And  many  a  clone  gelofre  and  notemuge  to  put  in  ale, 
Whether  it  be  moist  or  stale." 

Turner  names  the  plant  "Incarnacyon,"  and  Gerarde  identifies  the  ap- 
pellation with  the  color  carnation. 

In  more  modern  times,  Dr.  Prior  takes  "Coronation"  as  the  original  form, 
and  Britton  and  Holland  think  his  opinion  probably  correct.  Stevens  says 
that  before  the  time  of  Shakespeare,  "Carnardine"  was  the  familiar  name 
of  the  flower.  In  an  old  play  of  that  era  appears  the  couplet : 

"Grograms,  sattins,  velvet  fine; 
The    rosy-coloured    carnardine." 

Shakespeare  wrote  about  it  in  "A  Winter's  Tale,"  and  makes  Perdita 
say,  "The  fairest  flowers  o'  the  season  are  our  carnations."  This  was  in 
the  year  1601,  and  from  that  date  on  the  name  carnation  appears  to  have 
been  attached  to  the  plant. 

The  name  gillyflower — formerly  called  gillyvor,  gyllofer  and  gilofre- 
is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  caryophyllum,  a  close  (Greek  karno- 
phyllon).  By  others  it  is  thought  to  be  a  corruption  of  July  flower.  Drayton 
gives  warrant  for  the  latter  interpretation  in  the  following: 

"The  brave  carnation  then,  with  sweet  and  sovereign  power; 
So  of  his  color  called  although  a  July  flower." 

In  addition  to  its  utility  in  the  flavoring  of  dainty  dishes  as  well  as 
liquors,  for  which  purpose  it  was  doubtless  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  more 
costly  Indian  cloves,  the  gillyflower  was  thought  to  possess  medicinal 
properties.  Gerarde  assures  us  that  "the  conserve  made  of  the  flowers  of  the 
clove  gilliflower  and  sugar  is  exceeding  cordiall,  and  wonderfully  above 
measure  doth  comfort  the  heart,  being  eaten  now  and  then."  It  was  also 
thought  good  against  pestilential  fevers. 

18 


The  Origin  and  Early  History  of  the  Carnation 

When  the  carnation  became  a  "florists'  flower"  in  England  it  is  difficult 
to  state,  but  it  must  have  been  prior  to  Shakespeare's  time,  because  Gerarde 
says,  of  the  sorts  of  cloves,  carnations  and  pinks :  "A  large  volume  would  not 
suffice  to  write  of  every  one  .  .  .  particularly  considering  how  every 
year  and  every  climate  and  country  bringeth  forth  new  sorts,  and  such  as 


The  original  single  Carnation  and  its  development  into  a  double  flower 

1 — Original  5-petaled  flower  2 — One  petal  added 

3 — Several  petals  added  4 — A  nearly  double  flower 

5 — Flower  fully  double  but  not  increased  in  size 

have  not  heretofore  been  written  of;"  a  remark  which  will  well  apply  to 
modern  conditions. 

The  carnation  has  been  in  cultivation  for  more  than  2,000  years,  and  in 
early  Greek  history  was  also  mentioned  under  the  name  of  gilliflower.  The- 
ophrastus,  in  his  history  of  plants,  says :  "The  Greeks  cultivated  roses,  gilli- 
flowers,  violets,  narcissi  and  iris  ;"  the  gilliflower,  as  has  been  shown,  being  the 


The  Origin  and  Early  History  of  the  Carnation 

old  English  name  for  carnation.  However,  the  carnation  cultivated  at  that 
period  was  a  different  type  of  flower  from  the  species  which  has  been  brought 
into  prominence  and  commercial  importance  by  American  horticulturists.  The 
type  of  carnation  grown  by  European  gardeners  at  that  time,  and  which  is 
still  largely  the  variety  commonly  grown  in  Europe,  is  usually  kept  in  cold 
frames,  or  cool  houses,  during  the  winter  time,  and  as  spring  approaches 
the  plants  are  brought  into  blooming  quarters  ;  that  is,  the  pots  are  placed  upon 
stages  exposed  to  the  warm  sun,  where  they  can  be  protected  until  June  or 
July,  at  which  time  there  is  a  profusion  of  blossoms,  which  endure  for  a 
comparatively  short  period,  the  plants  seemingly  becoming  exhausted  ;  conse- 
quently, these  varieties  are  not  fitted  for  winter  forcing,  and  may  be  classed 
as  a  race  of  summer  flowering  carnations. 

In  England,  the  cultivation  of  the  carnation  under  glass  for  winter 
blooming  may  also  be  said  to  be  of  recent  origin.  In  Hovey's  Magazine  for 
1862  occurs  an  article,  entitled  "Carnations  in  Winter,"  reproduced  from  The 
Gardeners'  Chronicle,  of  London.  The  writer  of  that  article  says,  among 
other  things : 

"Carnations  in  winter !  Does  not  the  name  of  Clove  Gillyflower,  or  July  flower, 
which  belongs  to  the  plant,  negative  such  a  notion?  For  such  questions  we  can  only 
reply  that  carnations  in  winter,  and  carnations  of  very  good  quality,  too,  are  amongst 
the  comparatively  modern  improvements  in  floriculture,  which,  like  the  recently  intro- 
duced bouquet  dahlias  and  many  other  favorites  now  within  our  reach,  we  owe  to  the 
intelligent  skill  of  far-seeing  florists,  who,  having  detected  in  their  seed  beds  some  novel, 
though  perhaps  but  slightly  varied  form,  bearing  indications  of  a  new  and  desirable 
feature,  have  followed  up  the  limit  until  they  have  been  able  to  bring  out  some  old 
favorites  with  a  new  face. 

"And  yet,  in  respect  to  the  tree  carnations,  which  are  those  that  yield  winter  flowers, 
the  hint  was  given  many  years  ago,  so  that  we  can  only  speak  of  the  result  as  'compara- 
tively modern.'  The  race,  however,  seems  to  have  died  out  amongst  us  for  many  years, 
and  to  have  only  again  revived  at  a  very  recent  period.  Some  forty  years  ago,  it  seems, 
the  first  variety  of  tree  carnations,  one  with  crimson  flowers,  made  its  way  into  our 
gardens." 

The  National  Carnation  and  Picotee  Society  of  England  was  founded  in 
1850. 

The  carnation  as  a  garden  plant  was  introduced  into  America  over  one 
hundred  years  ago;  the  exact  date,  however,  being  uncertain.  In  1831, 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  offered  a  prize  for  carnations.  At 
one  of  the  society's  exhibitions,  held  August  i,  1829,  a  seedling  was  shown, 
and  the  Messrs.  Winship  and  David  Haggerston  exhibited  one  hundred 
varieties  in  1830. 

20 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

The  American  carnation,  which  is  known  as  the  perpetual  flowering,  or 
winter  blooming  carnation,  is  a  distinct  race,  and  differs  materially  from  the 
types  of  European  origination  now  usually  known  among  European  gar- 
deners. The  American  carnation  is  a  descendant  of,  and  is  derived  from,  the 
French  race  of  carnations,  which  is  known  as  remontant,  or  monthly,  and 
which  was  originated  about  the  year  1840  by  a  French  gardener,  M.  Dalmais, 
of  Lyons,  France,  who  introduced  the  first  real  constant  blooming  carnation 
about  1844.  Dalmais  is  said  to  have  secured  this  variety  by  artificially  crossing 
the  carnation  Demahon  with  the  variety  Biohon,  and  the  result  of  this  cross- 
ing was  again  hybridized  with  the  Flemish  carnation,  and  the  progeny  was 
repeatedly  crossed  until  the  type  was  fixed.  In  1846,  he  obtained  a  great 
number  of  varieties  of  this  race,  comprising  many  and  varied  colors. 

Another  distinguished  horticulturist,  M.  Schmidt,  of  Lyons,  continued 
the  work  of  Dalmais,  and  obtained  and  introduced  many,  at  that  day,  im- 
proved varieties,  which  remained  in  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
work  was  again  taken  up  by  another  enthusiastic  French  horticulturist,  M. 
Alphonse  Alegatiere,  also  of  Lyons,  who  followed  up  the  development  so 
well  that  he  obtained  marked  improvements  in  the  way  of  varieties,  with 
strong,  rigid  stems.  In  1866,  the  number  of  varieties  of  this  race  of  car- 
nations was  largely  increased,  and  the  name  of  "tree  carnation"  was  applied 
to  the  race. 

The  first  of  this  race  of  carnations  to  be  introduced  into  America  was 
imported  about  the  year  1852  by  Charles  Marc,  a  French  florist,  then  located 
at  Bloomingdale,  New  York,  who  cultivated  a  number  of  varieties  which  he 
called  remontant  carnations,  but  the  names  of  which  he  kept  secret,  possibly 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  competing  florists  from  importing  the  plants 
from  France.  But  between  the  years  1856  and  1866,  the  firm  of  Dailledouze, 
Zeller  &  Gard,  then  located  at  Flatbush,  Long  Island,  secured  from  a  private 
gardener  of  Lyons,  France,  carnation  seed  of  the  remontant,  or  monthly  type ; 
also  some  plants  of  the  variety  La  Purite,  which  was  described  as  of  a  beauti- 
ful rose  color;  also  Mont  Blanc,  white,  and  Manteaux  Royal,  a  variegated 
red  and  white. 

Mr.  Chas.  Zeller,  the  sole  practicing  survivor  of  the  above  firm,  states 
that  in  1858  the  firm  obtained  the  first  seedling  from  seed  of  their  own  rais- 
ing. This  was  a  pure  white,  fringed  variety,  with  a  free,  vigorous  habit.  It 
attracted  the  attention  of  all  visitors  to  the  firm's  greenhouses,  and  was 


21 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

esteemed  as  a  strange  and  remarkable  plant.  It  was  named  Mrs.  Degraw, 
in  honor  of  the  wife  of  the  then  president  of  the  Brooklyn  Horticultural 
Society.  At  the  same  time  another  white  variety  named  Flatbush  was  pro- 
duced; these  being  introduced  to  the  trade  about  1864.  Between  the  years 
1866  and  1872  several  varieties  were  produced  by  Mr.  Zeller,  which  were 
grown  a  number  of  years  chiefly  as  pot  plants,  among  them  a  pure  white 
of  fine  habit  and  long,  rigid  stem,  which  was  named  and  introduced  as 
Louise  Zeller. 

The  firm  of  Dailledouze  &  Zeller  issued  a  catalogue  between  1862  and 
1872,  but  as  this  catalogue  is  not  dated,  the  exact  period  of  its  publication  is 
not  known  to  the  writer.  The  firm  offered  for  sale  plants  of  fifty-four 
varieties  of  carnations,  which  were  described  in  this  list,  at  prices  ranging 
from  seventy-five  cents  to'  three  dollars  each.  In  this  catalogue  were  listed 
the  varieties,  Mrs.  Degraw,  Flatbush,  General  Grant  and  Mrs.  Zeller. 

During  this  period  another  seedling,  which  was  called  Victor  Emanuel, 
synonym  Astoria,  was  raised  by  Donati,  a  French  florist,  then  living  in 
Astoria,  L.  I.  The  ground  color  of  this  variety  was  yellow,  flaked  and 
striped  with  red.  This  became  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  early  American 
carnations,  and  remained  under  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years,  being 
probably  the  ancestor  of  most  of  the  yellow  American  carnations  which  are 
in  existence  to-day. 

Thus  it  appears  that  nearly  a  half  century  ago  the  development  of  the 
American  carnation  was  begun  on  Long  Island,  where  its  culture  has  been 
continued  and  expanded  until  that  section  has  become  one  of  the  chief  centers 
of  the  carnation  industry  of  this  country. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  iQth  century,  a  form  of  carnation  craze  overran 
England,  and  during  this  period  carnation  culture  was  brought  to  great 
perfection ;  blooms,  three  and  four  inches  in  diameter,  held  upon  erect,  stiff 
stems  thirty  to  forty  inches  in  length,  being  considered  the  criterion  of  a 
perfect  carnation.  The  following  description  of  carnations  grown  at  that  time, 
taken  from  "Don's  Gardeners'  Dictionary,"  published  in  1830,  will  give  a  fair 
idea  of  what  the  English  carnation  exhibitor  was  expected  to  produce : 

"Criterion  of  a  fine  double  carnation.  The  stem  should  be  strong,  tall,  and  straight ; 
not  less  than  30  inches  or  more  than  45  inches  high ;  the  footstalks  supporting  the 
flowers  should  be  strong,  elastic,  and  of  a  proportionate  length.  The  flower  should 
be  at  least  3  inches  in  diameter,  consisting  of  a  great  number  of  large,  well-formed 
petals,  but  neither  so  many  as  to  give  it  too  full  and  crowded  an  appearance,  nor  so  few 
as  to  make  it  appear  thin  and  empty.  The  petals  should  be  long,  broad  and  substantial, 
particularly  those  of  the  lower  and  outer  circle,  commonly  called  the  guard  leaves; 
these  should  rise  perpendicular  about  half  an  inch  above  the  calyx,  and  then  turn  off 

22 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

gracefully  in  a  horizontal  direction,  supporting  the  interior  petals,  and  altogether 
forming  a  convex  and  nearly  hemispherical  corolla.  The  interior  petals  should  rather 
decrease  in  size  as  they  approach  the  center  of  the  flower,  which  should  be  well  filled 
with  them.  The  petals  should  be  regularly  disposed  alike  on  every  side,  imbricating 


An  English    Bizarre 
Carnation 


From     "  The    Carnation,"    by 

Thos.  Hogg,  published 

in  1839 


each  other  in  such  a  manner  that  both  their  respective  and  united  beauties  may  captivate 
the  eye  at  the  same  instant;  they  should  be  nearly  flat,  however,  a  small  degree  of 
concavity,  or  inflection,  at  the  broad  end  is  allowable,  but  their  edges  should  be  per- 
fectly entire,  that  is  to  say,  free  from  fringe  or  indenture.  The  calyx  should  be  at  least 
one  inch  in  length,  terminating  in  broad  points  sufficiently  strong  to  hold  the  narrow 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

bases  of  the  petals,  in  a  close  and  circular  body.  Whatever  colors  the  flowers  may  be 
possessed  of,  they  should  be  perfectly  distinct,  and  disposed  in  long,  regular  stripes, 
broadest  at  the  edge  of  the  lamina,  and  gradually  becoming  narrower  as  they  approach 
the  unguis,  or  base  of  the  petal,  there  terminating  in  a  fine  point.  Each  petal  should 
have  a  due  proportion  of  white;  i.  e.,  one-half  or  nearly  so,  which  should  be  perfectly 
clear  and  free  from  spots." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  English  grower  strictly  barred  all  carnations 
with  fringed  petals.  This  is  in  direct  contradiction  to  the  American  idea  of 
a  fine  carnation,  for  here  the  fringed  petal  is  rather  preferred.  My  own 
experience  with  American-bred  carnations  is  that  those  varieties  with  fringed 
petals  are  more  easily  grown  under  our  conditions,  and  the  blooms  are 
also  better  keepers  than  the  shell-petaled  varieties. 

The  noted  English  horticulturist,  Thomas  Hogg,  in  his  treatise  on  carna- 
tion culture,  published  in  1839,  emphasizes  the  cardinal  points  of  a  fine 
carnation  as  follows : 

"The  excellence  of  a  carnation  is  judged  and  estimated  by  the  brightness  and  dis- 
tinctness of  its  various  tints  and  hues,  and  by  the  formation  or  construction  of  the 
flower  leaves  or  petals;  the  ground  color  should  be  of  a  clear  white,  and  the  flakes  or 
stripes  must  run  longitudinally  through  the  leaves,  not  breaking  off  abruptly.  In  a 
perfect  flower,  or  one  that  approaches  nearest  to  perfection,  every  leaf  should  be  striped 
according  to  its  class,  whether  flake  or  bizarre :  plain  or  self-colored  leaves  are  accounted 
a  great  defect.  The  calyx,  or  cup,  after  the  petals  are  unfolded,  must  remain  entire 
or  unburst,  and  the  large  external  petals,  or  guard  leaves,  must  be  without  crack  or 
blemish,  and  the  diameter  of  a  show  flower  should  never  be  less  than  three  inches.  It 
is  also  considered  a  great  defect  when  the  corolla  is  overcharged  with  petals,  for  the 
blossom  in  expanding  generally  bursts  the  cup ;  and  it  is  no  less  so,  when  it  contains 
too  few,  though  possessing  the  most  brilliant  and  distinct  colors. 

"The  flower  must  be  sufficiently  double  to  form  a  kind  of  crown  in  the  center,  the 
petals  rising  one  above  another  in  regular  order;  the  guard  leaves  in  particular  should 
be  broad  and  long,  and  of  a  stout  texture  to  support  the  rest,  the  edges  of  which  must 
not  be  indented  or  fringed;  but  plain  and  circular,  like  the  leaves  of  a  Provence  rose. 
A  flower  whose  corolla,  or  pod,  is  long,  generally  shoots  forth  the  finest  flower,  and 
occasions  the  least  trouble  in  attending  to  it.  The  stem,  or  foot  stalk,  must  be  straight 
and  elastic,  to  support  the  blossoms  firmly  and  gracefully,  notwithstanding  the  stick 
which  is  applied  to  sustain  it;  the  height  of  the  stalk  varies  from  2  feet  6  inches  to  4 
feet  6  inches,  according  to  the  habit  of  their  growth. 

"The  value  of  a  flower  is  also  greatly  enhanced  when  it  exhales  a  sweet  and  fra- 
grant perfume.  All  carnations  possess  this  quality,  but  in  very  different  degrees;  in 
some  it  is  scarcely  perceptible,  while  in  others  it  is  strikingly  powerful.  Odour  seems 
to  pievail  most  strongly  in  bizarred  scarlets  where  there  is  a  frequent  recurrence  of  the 
clove  stripe  in  the  petals. 

24 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

"The  preference  which  one  class  of  flowers  at  times  is  said  to  obtain  over  another, 
depends  entirely  on  the  taste  and  fancy  of  the  person  who  gives  that  preference.  The 
scarlet  bizarre  is  a  favorite  with  one,  the  crimson  with  another,  the  purple  flake  with 
another,  and  so  on  in  like  manner  with  the  rest. 

"There  can  be  no  certain  or  fixed  rule  why  one  is  to  be  judged  in  this  respect 
superior  to  another,  where  taste  is  the  only  criterion  to  go  by.  A  flower  possessed 
of  all  the  properties  called  for  by  the  rules  and  regulations  laid  down  in  the  societies, 
where  they  are  exhibited  for  prizes,  is  seldom  or  never  met  with." 

From  the  above  it  would  appear  that  in  Thomas  Hogg's  time  only  flakes, 
bizarres  and  picotees  were  considered  good  carnations,  while  at  present  the 
self  colors  are  considered  preferable  in  America. 

From  these  descriptions  it  would  seem  that  we  have  as  yet  by  no  means 
reached  the  full  development  of  this  magnificent  flower.  But,  as  stated,  the 
English  variety  is  an  entirely  different  race  from  that  which  has  come  to  be 
known  as  the  American  carnation.  It  is  not  a  perpetual  bloomer,  either  in  the 
open  ground  or  upon  stages,  giving  one  large  crop  of  flowers  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July,  or  August,  according  to  the  earliness  of  the  variety. 
But  little  of  the  blood  of  the  English  carnation  has  been  used  by  American  hy- 
bridizers in  the  development  of  the  American  race,  although  the  author 
secured  some  of  the  most  perpetual  blooming  varieties  of  carnations  that  we 
have ;  namely,  General  Maceo,  General  Gomez,  Governor  Roosevelt,  and 
their  progeny,  by  hybridizing  American  sorts  with  the  pollen  of  the  English 
variety  Winter  Cheer. 

About  1876,  Mr.  Rudolph  Heintz,  of  Detroit,  raised  Heintz's  White,  one 
of  the  best-known  varieties  of  American  origin,  which  remained  in  general 
cultivation  until  1895,  or  nearly  20  years.  This  variety  passed  into  the  hands 
of  John  Breitmeyer  &  Sons,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  was  disseminated  by  that 
firm.  Mr.  Heintz  also  originated  another  variety — Heintz's  Red. 

Following  the  work  of  Dailledouze,  Zeller  and  Donati  comes  that  of  Mr. 
Charles  T.  Starr,  of  Avondale,  Pa.  (who  commenced  as  a  florist  about 
1870),  and  Mr.  John  Thorpe,  of  Queens,  N.  Y.  In  1878,  Starr  began  offer- 
ing to  the  trade  seedling  carnations  of  his  own  raising,  his  first  offerings  being 
the  varieties  Lord  Clyde  and  Lydia.  There  is  no  record  extant  of  the 
varieties  he  offered  between  the  years  1878  and  1884,  but,  in  1884,  he  intro- 
duced the  famous  Buttercup,  also  Dawn,  Century,  Scarlet  King,  Field  of 
Gold,  Lady  Emma,  Philadelphia,  Avondale,  Mrs.  Garfield,  and  a  number  of 
others.  He  continued  the  growing  and  introduction  of  seedling  carnations 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1891.  There  is  very  little  known  of  his 

25 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

methods  and  theories,  or  of  the  pedigrees  of  his  seedlings.  He  once  stated 
that  Buttercup,  Field  of  Gold,  Venus,  and  Duke  of  York  were  all  from  one 
seed  pod  of  Edwardsii,  which  was  fertilized  with  the  pollen  of  Astoria, 


Governor  Roosevelt 

synonym  Victor  Emanuel ;  and  from  this  statement  we  are  led  to  infer  that 
Astoria  was  the  ancestor  of  the  yellow  varieties  of  American  carnations. 

26 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

Many  of  Air.  Starr's  productions  possessed  great  merit;  but  owing  to 
his  moderate  methods  of  advertising,  few  of  the  varieties  reached  the  com- 
mercial importance  which  has  been  attained  by  the  more  recent  intro- 
ductions. 

The  veteran  horticulturist,  Air.  John  Thorpe,  came  next  into  the  carnation 
field,  and  contributed  some  of  the  most  celebrated  varieties  of  carnations, 
which  were  sent  out  from  the  year  1883  to  1890.  Mr.  Thorpe  commenced  his 
work  on  carnations  about  the  year  1881.  Among  his  most  celebrated  produc- 
tions were  Portia,  Rosalind,  Miranda,  Isabel  and  Imogene,  which  were  sold 
to  Mr.  B.  K.  Bliss  in  the  year  1885.  He  also  originated  May  Queen,  Charles 
Henderson,  Maggie  Thorpe,  all  of  which  were  rose-pink  varieties ;  Sensa- 
tion, a  good  yelknv ;  E.  G.  Hill,  a  brilliant  scarlet ;  W.  W.  Coles,  a  scarlet,  and 
Jas.  Y.  Murkland,  which  he  describes  as  the  most  perfect  carnation  he  had 
ever  seen,  and  which  he  states  was  the  beginning  of  the  non-bursting  race  of 
carnations ;  it  was  a  shy  bloomer,  but  of  good  color. 

Following  close  upon  Mr.  Thorpe's  work  comes  that  of  Mr.  William 
Swayne,  of  Kennett  Square,  Pa.,  who  introduced  his  first  varieties,  Wm. 
Swayne  and  L.  L.  Lamborn,  in  the  spring  of  1888.  Both  of  these  varieties 
achieved  considerable  commercial  importance,  and  were  largely  grown  for 
a  number  of  years. 

Contemporaneous  with  Mr.  Thorpe's  was  the  work  of  Mr.  W.  P. 
Simmons,  who  originated  Daybreak,  Tidal  Wave  and  Silver  Spray.  Mr. 
Thorpe  states  that  Daybreak  was  a  seedling  from  a  variety  named  August 
Rolker,  which  was  a  seedling  raised  by  himself.  All  of  these  varieties,  I 
am  informed  by  Mr.  Thorpe,  were  hybridized  from  the  sorts  originated 
by  him  at  Queens,  Long  Island. 

Also  coeval  with  the  \vork  of  Mr.  Thorpe  was  that  of  Mr.  Sewell 
Fisher,  of  Framingham,  Mass.  The  latter  gentleman  commenced  his  work 
as  early  as  the  year  18/6,  his  first  seed  being  obtained  from  a  seed  pod  from 
Zeller's  variety,  President  Degraw.  From  this,  in  1877,  he  produced  two 
varieties,  Sea  Foam  and  Fascination,  both  of  which  were  introduced  by 
Messrs.  V.  H.  Hallock  &  Son  and  Mr.  Thorpe ;  in  1882,  Anna  Webb ;  in  1883, 
Silver  Lake,  and  in  1884,  Florence,  which  was  sent  out  by  Mr.  Denys  Zirn- 
giebel.  The  variety,  Mrs.  Fisher,  which  probably  attained  the  most  prom- 
inence of  any  of  Mr.  Fisher's  productions,  was  raised  in  1886.  It  was  sent 
out  and  introduced  to  commerce  in  1890.  Crystal,  a  pure  white,  was  pro- 
duced in  1889;  m  J892,  Sebec,  a  crimson;  in  1893,  Servia,  a  white,  and 
in  1896,  Saxon,  a  scarlet.  Mr.  Fisher  seems  to  have  followed  a  system  of 
careful  hybridizing,  as  he  states  that  he  produced  from  300  to  600  seedling 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

plants  each  year.  He  has  also  stated  that  he  grew  seedling  carnations 
rather  as  a  source  of  pleasure  than  profit,  although  he  got  some  returns  for 
his  work. 

In  1890,  Mr.  John  McGowan,  of  Orange,  N.  J.,  in  connection  with  Mr. 
H.  E.  Chitty,  of  Paterson,  N.  J.,  introduced  the  famous  variety,  Lizzie 
McGowan,  which  for  a  period  of  ten  years  was  grown  to  a  greater  extent 
than  any  other  white  carnation.  This  variety  was  a  cross  between  Peter 
Henderson  and  Heintz's  White,  and  was  originated  by  Mr.  Carl  Schaeffer, 
then  gardener  for-  Mr.  T.  B.  Peddie,  Llewellyn  Park,  and  subsequently  to 
Hon.  Samuel  Colgate,  of  Orange,  N.  J.,  to  which  latter  place  he  took  the 
variety,  and  eventually  sold  the  stock  to  Mr.  McGowan. 

In  1876,  Joseph  Tailby,  of  Wellesley,  Mass.,  raised  the  variety  which 
was  introduced  under  the  name  of  Grace  Wilder.  It  was  the  result  of  a 
cross  between  La  Purite  and  Boule  de  Neige,  the  latter  variety  being 
known  by  some  as  Smith's  White.  It  remained  in  cultivation  for  a  long 
period  of  years,  and  was  considered  the  leading  commercial  pink  carnation. 
It  stood  against  all  competitors  until  the  introduction  of  Mr.  Dorner's 
William  Scott  rapidly  supplanted  it.  Mr.  Tailby  also  raised  a  number  of  other 
seedlings ;  among  them,  Fred.  Johnson,  Dr.  Whitney,  Mrs.  Priest,  and  others. 

About  the  year  1889,  Mr.  Frederick  Dorner,  of  Lafayette,  Ind.,  began 
the  growing  of  hybrid  carnations.  Mr.  Dorner  has  undoubtedly  done  for  the 
American  carnation  as  much  as,  if  not  more  than,  any  other  grower  of  hybrid 
seedlings.  He  carried  on  his  work  thoroughly  and  persistently.  The  first  re- 
sults he  achieved  were  sold  to  the  E.  G.  Hill  Co.,  and  that  firm  disseminated  17 
varieties  of  the  seedlings  obtained.  From  1890  to  date,  Mr.  Dorner  and  his 
firm  have  introduced  the  following  list  of  varieties:  In  1893,  Mrs.  E. 
Reynolds,  Mme.  Diaz  Albertini,  Richmond,  Blanche,  Wm.  Scott,  Spartan, 
Purdue,  Dr.  Smart,  Western  Pride  and  Wabash ;  in  1894,  Uncle  John,  E.  A. 
Wood,  The  Stuart  and  Goldfinch ;  in  1895,  Bridesmaid,  Meteor  and  Storm 
King,  by  Mr.  Ward ;  in  1896,  Dazzle ;  in  1897,  Mrs.  Duhme  and  Mrs.  George 
M.  Bradt,  Mary  Wood  and  C.  A.  Dana,  by  Mr.  Ward ;  in  1898,  White  Cloud 
and  Gold  Nugget;  in  1899,  G.  H.  Crane;  in  1900,  Morning  Glory;  in  1901, 
Lorna  and  Mermaid ;  and  in  1902,  Alba,  Stella,  Dorothy  Whitney  and  Apollo. 

The  variety  William  Scott  became  as  famous  as  its  ancestor,  Grace 
Wilder,  and  at  the  present  time  is  probably  more  largely  grown  than  any 
other  pink  carnation. 

28 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

Mr.  W.  R.-Shelmire,  of  Avondale,  Pa.,  also  contributed  a  number  of 
valuable  varieties,  among  them  Eldorado  and  Caesar. 

In  1890,  Air.  E.  G.  Hill  became  interested  in  the  growing  of  seedling 
carnations,  through  purchasing  a  number  of  seedlings  from  Mr.  Dorner.  A 
number  of  these  varieties  were  introduced ;  in  fact,  the  following  set  was 
sent  out :  Edna  Craig,  Fred  Dorner,  Edwin  Lonsdale,  Christine,  Hoosier,  In- 
diana, Creole,  Red  Cross,  San  Mateo,  Canada,  Cherry  Lips,  Sea  Gull  and 
Ben  Hur.  Many  of  these  varieties,  which  were  producing  extremely  fine 
flowers,  were  not  sufficiently  free  in  bloom  to  make  them  a  commercial 
success ;  consequently,  they  have  passed  out  of  existence.  With  the  stock 
purchased  from  Mr.  Dorner  as  a  basis,  Mr.  Hill  began  the  raising  of  seed- 
lings, and  in  1896  introduced  Triumph,  Armazindy,  Abundance,  together 
with  the  variety  Jubilee,  which  was  purchased  from  Mr.  John  Hartje,  of 
Indianapolis.  In  1897,  Flora  Hill,  which  was  undoubtedly  the  best  of  Mr. 
Hill's  productions,  and  Mrs.  McBurney  were  introduced;  in  1898,  Painted 
Lady  and  Psyche,  and  in  1899,  America. 

Mr.  Peter  Fisher,  of  Ellis,  Mass.,  quickly  sprang  into  fame  through  the 
raising,  and  particularly  the  selling,  of  the  variety  which  was  named  Mrs. 
Thos.  W.  Lawson,  and  which  was  grown  in  1895,  the  variety  being  the  result 
of  a  cross  between  Daybreak  and  Van  Leeuwen.  This  variety  was  given  a 
world-wide  reputation  by  its  sale  to  Mr.  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  for  the  seem- 
ingly fabulous  sum  of  thirty  thousand  dollars.  One-half  of  this  sum  is  said 
to  have  gone  to  Air.  Fisher,  and  the  remaining  half  to  Air.  Thomas  Galvin, 
the  Boston  florist  and  friend  of  Mr.  Lawson,  who  negotiated  the  sale.  Others 
of  Mr.  Fisher's  later  productions  are,  Enchantress  and  Governor  Wolcott. 

Mr.  Richard  Witterstaetter,  of  Sedamsville,  Ohio,  commenced  the  hy- 
bridization of  carnations  in  1890,  with  Degraw  and  La  Purite  as  a  basis. 
Mr.  Witterstsetter's  work  has  evidently  been  very  carefully  done.  The 
varieties  introduced  by  him  are  few ;  namely,  Emma  Wocher,  light  pink ; 
Evelina,  white ;  Estelle,  scarlet ;  Enquirer,  bright  pink,  and  Adonis.  The 
latter,  his  most  brilliant  production,  was  sold  to  Messrs.  E.  G.  Hill  and 
Robert  Craig,  in  the  year  1901,  for  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars. 

The  author  commenced  the  growing  of  hybrid  carnations  in  the  year 
1890.  The  varieties  with  which  he  had  to  work  were  Wm.  Swayne,  L.  L. 
Lamborn,  Portia,  Rosalind,  Buttercup,  Philadelphia ;  and,  later  on,  to  this 
list  was  added  Lizzie  McGowan,  also  Wm.  Scott,  Richmond,  Elizabeth 
Reynolds  and  Mme.  Diaz  Albertini,  of  the  productions  of  Mr.  Frederick 

29 


History  of  the  Development  of  the  Carnation 

Dorner.  The  first  variety  he  introduced  to  commerce  was  Ethel,  a  seedling  of 
Portia,  crossed  with  the  pollen  of  L.  L.  Lamborn ;  it  was  chiefly  valuable  as  a 
summer  bloomer. 

In  1898  or  1899,  General  Gomez,  General  Maceo,  Mrs.  James  Dean  and 
John  Young  were  introduced,  all  of  which  were  largely  cultivated  for  a 
number  of  years  by  commercial  growers.  Next  followed  Glacier,  in  1900,  and 
Governor  Roosevelt,  Golden  Beauty  and  Novelty,  which  were  introduced  in 
1901.  Viola  Allen,  Harry  Fenn  and  J.  H.  Manley  were  introduced  in  1902, 
Mrs.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Governor  Bliss  and  Alpin  Glow  in  1903. 


Carrying  the  Plants   to  the  Greenhouse 


3° 


CHAPTER  II 

The  Carnation  in  America 

THE  commercial  importance  of  the  carnation  as  a  florists'  flower  has 
been  developed  since  the  introduction  of  the  French  or  remontant 
varieties  into  America,  which  occurred  about  the  year  1852.  The 
commencement  of  the  raising  of  seedlings  by  Dailledouze  &  Zeller,  of  Flat- 
bush,  Long  Island,  in  1866,  may  be  stated  as  the  beginning,  or  as  laying  the 
foundation  of  the  American  carnation,  which  may  be  classed  as  a  distinct  or 
modified  species,  the  product  of  acclimatization  and  hybridization.  The 
superiority  of  the  American-bred  carnation  for  the  purpose  of  winter  forcing 
is  now  acknowledged  throughout  the  world  and  its  importance  as  a  florists' 
flower  is  constantly  on  the  increase. 

No  other  flower  possesses  more  intrinsic  value  than  the  carnation.  It  has 
become,  perhaps,  the  greatest  staple  commercial  flower  in  existence,  a  serious 
rival  to  the  rose,  destined  to  supersede  the  Queen  of  Flowers,  to  some  extent, 
in  popularity,  and  to  remain  in  greenhouse  culture  as  long  as  the  love  of 
flowers  or  the  use  of  them  exists.  The  improvement  in  the  quality  and  per- 
fection of  the  bloom  now  grown,  and  the  superior  methods  of  marketing  the 
flowers,  have  brought  about  a  constantly  increasing  use  of  the  carnation,  as 
well  as  substantial  advancements  in  price. 

The  carnation  is  a  flower  that  awakens  the  love  of  almost  every  person, 
and  as  the  average  blooms  are  sold  at  much  more  reasonable  prices  than 
many  other  flowers,  they  come  within  the  reach  of  a  larger  class  of  people 
than  do  roses  and  orchids ;  consequently,  the  consumption  is  greater,  and  the 
use  of  the  carnation  by  rich  and  poor  alike  is  rapidly  extending. 

There  is  no  purpose  to  which  flowers  can  be  put  for  which  the  car- 
nation is  not  fitted.  It  aptly  lends  itself  to  almost  every  scheme  of  decoration. 
Its  delicious,  clean,  pungent,  aromatic  fragrance  admits  it  to  almost  every 
sick  room.  It  is  probably  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  and  one  of  the  most 
durable  vase  flowers  known.  It  is  unsurpassed  for  dinner  or  center-table 
decoration.  It  is  universally  employed  in  the  making  up  of  set  pieces.  It  is 
also  one  of  the  best  flowers  for  boutonnieres  that  the  florist  has  at  his 
command ;  and,  finally,  its  wide  range  of  pleasing  colors,  its  lasting  qualities. 


The  Carnation  in  America 

its  fresh,  rich  clove  fragrance,  combine  to  make  it  one  of  the  most  favored, 
as  well  as  one  of  the  most  sought  for  and  profitable  of  florist's  flowers. 


An  Artistic  Decoration   with  Carnations 

The  amount  of  glass  devoted  to  carnation  culture  is  increasing  each  year 
by  the  erection  of  immense  establishments,  covering  in  some  instances  one  to 

32 


3 
.0 


The  Carnation  in  America 

three  acres  of  ground,  for  the  specific  purpose  of  forcing  carnations  for  the 
winter  market,  and  it  may  now  be  safely  estimated  that  between  seven  and 
eight  million  square  feet  of  glass  are  devoted  solely  to  carnation  culture  in 
America.  The  number  of  establishments  which  may  be  classed  as  given  up 
principally  to  carnation  growing  is  probably  not  less  than  two  thousand. 
These  employ  between  five  and  six  thousand  people,  who  are  paid  wages 
ranging  from  thirty-five  to  fifty  dollars  per  month  for  ordinary  hands  and 
growers,  to  seventy-five  to  eighty  dollars  per  month  for  growers  sufficiently 
skilled  to  manage  establishments. 

From  seven  to  eight  million  carnation  plants  are  annually  grown,  pro- 
ducing upward  of  one  hundred  million  carnation  blooms  per  annum,  cut  and 
sold  in  the  various  markets  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  These  flowers 
are  estimated  as  selling  at  an  average  of  four  dollars  per  hundred,  or  four 
millions  of  dollars  for  the  entire  annual  output.  About  the  year  1890,  the  re- 
tail prices  of  carnations  ranged  from  twenty-five  to  fifty,  and,  at  occasional 
times,  seventy-five  cents  per  dozen.  At  the  present  time  the  average  retail 
prices  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States  stand  at  from  seventy-five  cents 
to  five  dollars  per  dozen,  and,  in  rare  instances,  especially  fine  blooms  are  sold 
at  as  high  as  eight  to  twelve  dollars  per  dozen.  In  some  of  the  factory 
and  smaller  towns,  carnations  are  still  sold  as  low  as  thirty-five  to  fifty 
cents  per  dozen,  but  these  prices  are  due  to  a  foolish  competition  among 
local  florists,  and  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  established  by  the  legitimate 
law  of  supply  and  demand.  Properly  grown  carnation  flowers  should 
command  at  least  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  dozen  at  retail. 

The  largest  American  carnation  establishments  are  located  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  New  York  and  Chicago.  Probably  more  carnation  blooms  are  grown 
and  shipped  to  the  New  York  market  than  to  any  other  in  the  United  States. 
Several  very  large,  as  well  as  many  moderate-sized,  establishments,  devoted 
exclusively  to  carnation  culture,  are  located  mainly  upon  the  western  portion 
of  Long  Island.  New  Jersey  boasts  of  a  number  of  large  establishments,  as 
well  as  a  great  number  of  smaller  ones.  There  are  also  many  establishments 
of  varying  size  located  upon  the  railroads  leading  from  New  York  to  Boston, 
and  along  the  line  of  the  Hudson  River  and  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
road a  large  area  of  glass  pours  its  flowers  into  the  New  York  market. 

Chicago  stands  next  in  importance  in  the  area  of  glass  devoted  to  car- 
nation culture.  Enormous  establishments  are  located  at  Joilet,  Hinsdale,  and 
in  the  immediate  suburbs  of  Chicago,  while  as  far  south  as  Richmond  and 
Lafayette,  Ind.,  large  areas  of  glass  are  given  up  to  carnation  culture,  a 
part  of  their  product  being  shipped  into  the  Chicago  market.  But  many  of 

34 


o 
CJ 

B 

eg 

•53 

e 


^ 

^ 


«    SP 


The  Carnation  in  America 

the  larger  establishments,  such  as  those  located  at  Joilet  and  Hinsdale,  also 
consign  a  considerable  portion  of  their  flowers  to  the  smaller  towns  in  Wis- 
consin and  farther  west. 

California  produces  quantities  of  carnation  flowers,  but  they  are  mostly 
raised  out-of-doors,  comparatively  few  being  cultivated  under  glass.  Carna- 
tions are  grown  as  far  north  as  Quebec,  and  as  far  south  as  Florida.  Canada 
produces  her  full  quota,  large  establishments  being  situated  in  the  vicinity 
of  Toronto  and  London,  and  the  flowers  are  consumed,  to  some  extent,  in 
Montreal.  Carnations  are  also  largely  grown  in  Pennsylvania,  in  the  neigh- 


A   California   Carnation   Field 
E.  J.  Vawter,  Ocean  Park,  South  Santa  Monica,  Cal. 

borhood  of  Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia ;  at  one  time  so  many  were  cultivated 
in  Chester  County,  Pa.,  that  a  portion  of  that  country  was  dubbed  the 
"Carnation  Belt." 

Boston,  Washington,  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  Detroit  and  Cincinnati  all  sup- 
port large  and  important  ranges  of  glass,  devoted  to  carnation  culture.  Ex- 
tensive establishments  also  exist  near  Denver,  Milwaukee,  St.  Paul,  and  many 
other  large  American  cities,  and  it  may  be  truly  stated  that  the  culture  and 
consumption  of  carnations  are  spreading  steadily  over  the  entire  temperate 
America. 

Cultivation  of  the  American  carnation  is  rapidly  extending  to  Europe. 

36 


The  Carnation  in  America 

Large  establishments  in  the  vicinity  of  London  are  now  forcing  it  in  quan- 
tity during  the  winter  months,  the  blooms  being  sold  at  the  Covent  Garden 
flower  market,  in  London.  Belgian  and  German  florists  are  also  under- 
taking its  culture  upon  an  extensive  scale,  and  many  of  the  sons  of  German 
florists  now  visit  the  United  States  to  serve  apprenticeships  in  the  leading 
carnation  establishments,  returning  in  a  vear  or  two  to  their  native  land  to 


The  J.  D.    Thompson  Carnation  Co.  Range,  Joliet,  111. 
A    Western  Carnation  Establishment 

engage  in  the  winter  culture  of  the  American  carnation.  Thus  the  utility 
of  the  American  race  of  Dianthus  Caryophyllus  for  winter  forcing  is  being 
universally  recognized,  and  within  the  next  generation  we  may  expect  to  see 
it  in  general  cultivation  throughout  the  horticultural  world,  wherever  climatic 
conditions  permit. 


37 


CHAPTER  III 

General  Greenhouse  Culture 
Raising  Plants  from  Seed 

ONE  of  the  most  interesting  methods  of  raising  carnation  plants  is 
from  seed.  By  this  means,  new  varieties,  and  in  some  instances  a 
practical  reproduction  of  older  varieties,  with  renewed  and  more 
vigorous  constitutions,  are  produced.  In  the  propagation  of  plants  from 
cuttings  comparatively  little  variation  is  secured,  the  entire  stock  propagated 
being  a  practical  reproduction  of  the  original  variety.  But  in  raising  plants 
from  seed,  and  particularly  from  seed  taken  from  carefully  cross-fertilized 
blooms,  the  varieties  produced  vary  to  such  an  extent  that  the  grower  can 
scarcely  prognosticate  the  result.  Great  variations  in  habit,  color,  form, 
fragrance,  time  of  blooming,  size  of  flower,  quantity  of  bloom  produced  and 
vigor  of  constitution  are  secured.  Practically  all  of  the  new  varieties  that 
come  into  existence  are  originated  from  plants  grown  from  cross-fertilized 
seed.  In  Chapter  XIX.  such  detailed  instructions  upon  cross  fertilization  are 
recorded  that  anyone  able  to  grow  a  carnation  plant  may  produce  new 
varieties.  Full  instructions  as  to  sowing  of  seed  and  treating  the  young 
carnation  plants  are  also  given. 

Propagation  from  Cuttings 

In  growing  carnations  for  cut  flowers,  the  only  practical  method  of  pro- 
ducing large  quantities  of  stock  is  by  propagation  from  cuttings.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  state  that  the  best  results  will  be  gained  by  propagating  from  plants 
rigidly  selected,  and  showing  the  desired  habits,  as  well  as  by  selecting  wood 
which  is  in  perfect  condition  when  taken.  Cuttings  taken  the  latter  part  of 
January  and  during  the  months  of  February  and  March,  even  up  to  the  I5th 
of  April,  will  produce  excellent  results  for  winter  blooming.  Cuttings  taken 
in  February  will  give  larger  plants,  which  may  be  lifted  earlier,  and  which 
will  come  into  flower  sooner  and  produce  larger  crops  at  Christmas  and  in  the 
fore  part  of  the  winter.  Throughout  my  experience,  cuttings  taken  in  late 

38 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

February  and  early  March  have,  upon  the  whole,  given  rather  the  best  results 
during  the  entire  season;  however,  some  of  the  finest  crops  of  carnations  I 
have  grown  were  from  cuttings  taken  during  the  month  of  April.  These 
were  taken  from  April  i  to  15 ;  were  potted  up  in  two-inch  pots  about  the 
ist  to  the  loth  of  May ;  set  in  the  open  ground  from  the  ist  to  the  loth  of 
June,  and  lifted  and  planted  on  the  benches  during  the  month  of  September. 
While  the  crop  of  flowers  from  such  cuttings  was  not  quite  as  abundant  as 
that  from  the  earlier  stock,  the  stems  were  stronger  and  longer,  and  the 
flowers  larger  and  of  better  substance.  Each  grower  will  have  to  determine 
from  actual  experience  the  best  time  to  take  his  cuttings.  With  varieties 
which  are  rampant  growers,  and  which  do  not  lift  well,  we  have  not  secured 
as  good  results  with  very  early  cuttings  as  with  those  taken  the  latter  part 
of  March  up  to  the  middle  of  April.  If  a  carnation  plant  is  too  large  it  does 
not  lift  as  well,  as  it  suffers  more  severely ;  and  the  quantity,  as  well  as  the 
quality,  of  the  flowers  is  somewhat  impaired;  while  with  the  late  blooming 
varieties  it  is  necessary  to  take  earlier  cuttings  in  order  to  secure  the  crop 
at  the  proper  time. 

I  have  formed  the  opinion  that  a  carnation  plant  lifted  with  the  least 
possible  check,  and  kept  in  vigorous  growth,  will  produce  the  best  results, 
such  as  length  and  stiffness  of  stems,  size  of  bloom,  substance  of  flowers  and 
keeping  qualities.  I  believe  that  every  check  to  a  carnation  plant  is  a  detri- 
ment. We  all  know  that  in  the  growing  of  specimen  chrysanthemum  blooms 
any  serious  check  impairs  the  quality  of  the  flower,  and  I  have  never  seen 
any  tangible  evidence,  or  reason,  why  this  should  not  also  be  true  with 
the  carnation. 

Potting  Young  Carnation  Stock 

The  potting  of  young  carnation  plants  from  the  cutting  bench  is  one  of 
the  most  important  operations,  and  should  only  be  done  with  care  and  judg- 
ment by  experienced  men.  Too  many  young  carnation  plants  are  potted 
deeply;  that  is,  the  root  crown  is  buried  from  three-quarters  to  an  inch  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  is  wrong.  The  root  crown  should  not  be 
more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  In  the  case 
of  deeply-potted  cuttings,  many  of  them  are  apt  to  die  off,  especially  if  the 
plant  should  happen  to  be  over-watered.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in 
watering  young  stock.  The  young  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to  become 
too  dry,  nor  should  they  be  kept  constantly  soaked,  or  so  heavily  watered  as  to 
compact  the  soil  and  render  it  sour.  They  should  be  shifted  as  soon  as 
they  have  made  their  growth,  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  pot- 

39 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

bound.  A  carnation  plant  turned  out  of  a  pot  in  a  healthy,  vigorous  grow- 
ing condition  is,  for  the  purpose  of  growing  on  for  forcing,  worth  double 
one  that  is  pot-bound  or  growing  in  a  sour  and  sodden  soil.  I  will  venture 
the  statement  that  a  well-grown  carnation  plant  suitable  for  forcing  should 
never  have  been  subjected  to  a  serious  check  in  its  growth  if  it  is  expected  to 
produce  the  best  results. 

Planting  Carnations  in  the  Field 

The  usual  method  of  treating  carnations  in  the  summer  time  is  to  plant 
them  in  the  field.  There  are  advocates  of  different  methods  of  planting. 
One  recommends  planting  in  beds,  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  the  plants 
a  foot  or  so  apart  in  the  row,  cultivation  being  by  wheel  or  scuffle  hoe  and 
the  ordinary  hoeing.  Another  recommends  field  culture,  so-called ;  that  is, 
planting  in  rows  from  two  to  three  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  ten  to  twelve 
inches  apart  in  the  row,  using  a  horse  hoe  for  cultivation,  supplemented  with 
hand  hoeing.  Where  the  grower  has  unlimited  ground,  I  prefer  the  field 
cultivation ;  but  where  the  ground  for  growing  plants  is  restricted,  about  as 
good  results  are  secured  from  planting  in  beds. 

In  soils  producing  a  rank,  strong  growth,  the  plants  should  be  set  rather 
farther  apart  than  in  soils  where  the  growth  is  moderate.  In  rich  soils,  a 
good  rule  is  to  have  the  rows  twenty  inches  apart,  and  the  plants  twelve 
to  fourteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Any  standard  hand-wheel  hoe  that  stirs 
the  soil  thoroughly,  but  not  deeply,  may  be  used  in  cultivating  between  the 
rows. 

Preparing  Field  Soils 

Of  the  several  methods  in  vogue  of  preparing  the  soil  for  field  culture, 
nothing  is  more  practicable  nor  better  than  thoroughly  manuring  with  well- 
rotted  stable  manure,  ploughing  it  in  and  harrowing  thoroughly.  (See 
chapter  on  preparation  of  soils  for  field  culture.) 

Cutting  Back  or  Stopping 

During  the  summer  time,  blooming  shoots  should  be  cut  back  at  least  as 
often  as  every  two  weeks.  The  best  results,  and  the  most  even  and  con- 
tinuous blooming  in  winter,  are  obtained  by  going  over  the  plants  once  each 
week  and  cutting  back  only  those  shoots  that  are  pushing  well  forward  into 
bud.  Varieties  that  are  inclined  to  come  into  bud  late,  such  as  Prosperity  and 
others  of  like  character,  should  not  be  topped  after  the  ist  to  the  middle 
of  July.  But  very  early  blooming  varieties,  such  as  Alpine  Glow,  William 

40 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

Scott,  Harry  Fenn  and  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  may  be  topped  as  late  as 
the  ist  of  September. 

Preparation  of  Soil  for  Greenhouse  Culture 
The   English  Method 

The  better  soil  we  afford  our  carnations  the  better  will  be  the  result. 
The  old  English  method  of  paring  off  sods  from  an  old  pasture  field  and 
piling  them  up  in  alternate  layers  of  sods  and  manure,  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one-fifth  manure  to  four-fifths  sod,  cannot  be  very  well  improved  upon ; 
but  it  is  an  expensive  method,  and  in  the  large  American  establishments  is  not 
very  often  practiced. 

The  Field  Method— With  the  Plough 

A  preparation  of  the  soil,  almost  as  good  as  the  foregoing,  is  to  spread 
the  manure  evenly  upon  the  sod  ground  early  in  September,  and  plough  it 
under,  running  the  plough  about  five  inches  deep,  following  that  by  break- 
ing up  the  soil  thoroughly  with  the  disk  harrow.  Another  light  coat  of  manure 
may  be  spread  on  the  ploughed  ground  late  in  November,  and  turned  under, 
the  ground  being  left  rough  and  in  ridges,  so  that  it  will  get  a  thorough 
freezing.  In  the  spring  the  ground  should  be  ploughed  as  early  as  possible, 
and  again  two  or  three  times,  finally  throwing  the  soil  together  in  long 
ridges,  so  that  when  removing  it  from  the  field  to  the  benches,  carts  may  be 
driven  in  the  alley-ways  between  the  ridges,  and  the  soil  will  not  be  tramped 
upon  nor  compacted  by  driving  over  it. 

Fillink  Benches 

In  filling  the  benches,  care  should  be  taken  to  get  the  soil  evenly  firmed 
throughout  the  bench.  The  best  manner  of  doing  this  is  for  a  man  with  a 
shovel  to  turn  over  all  of  the  soil  as  it  is  thrown  upon  the  bench,  and  to  care- 
fully pack  it  so  that  the  entire  mass  will  be  of  an  equal  degree  of  density.  If 
the  benches  are  filled  evenly  and  the  soil  is  of  uniform  texture  and  density, 
watering  the  carnation  plants  is  much  more  simple,  and  can  be  more  effect- 
ively done  than  where  the  bench  is  improperly  filled.  Light  loams  and  sandy 
soils  are  benefited  by  tramping,  or  compacting,  the  bench  after  filling,  but 
such  is  not  the  case  with  heavy,  stiff  clay  soils. 

Benching  Carnations 

The  proper  time  for  lifting  and  benching  will  vary  in  different  locali- 
ties according  to  climatic  conditions.  Where  the  carnation  plant  attains 
an  early  matured  growth,  and  where  the  temperature  conditions  are  moderate, 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

lifting  may  begin  immediately  after  the  5th  of  July.  In  other  localities 
where  the  plants  make  the  most  of  their  growth  in  the  later  summer  months, 
and  are  subject  to  extreme  hot  spells  during  July,  August  and  September, 
lifting  may  be  deferred  until  well  into  the  latter  month. 

Early  versus  Late  Lifting 

There  is  quite  a  variation  of  opinion  between  the  advocates  of  early  lift- 
ing and  those  of  late  lifting.    Each  individual  grower  must  decide,  by  prac- 


House  of  Carnation  Governor  Roosevelt  just  planted — latter  part  of  August 

tical  experience,  the  best  date  for  him  to  lift  and  plant  his  carnations.  In  our 
experience  the  most  satisfactory  average  results  have  been  obtained  from 
plants  lifted  prior  to  the  2Oth  of  August;  and  many  of  the  later  blooming 

42 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

kinds  are  lifted  as  early  as  the  loth  to  the  I5th  of  July.  We  have,  however, 
secured  magnificent  crops  from  many  varieties  of  carnations  by  lifting  as  late 
as  the  ist  of  October.  Late  lifted  plants  are  apt  to  give  a  large  crop  of  com- 
paratively short-stemmed  flowers,  while  in  the  case  of  the  earlier  lifted  stock, 
though  not  producing  as  abundantly,  the  blooms  will  be  of  better  quality,  the 
stems  being  longer  and  stronger,  and  the  product  will  bring  a  sufficiently 
advanced  price  to  practically  make  up  the  difference  in  the  yield. 

Digging  Plants  from  Field 

In  lifting  plants  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  digging  and  carrying 
them  into  the  greenhouses.  The  digging  should  be  done  by  careful  men, 
and  all  of  the  root  possible  taken  in  with  the  plant.  As  soon  as  plants 
are  dug  they  should  be  placed  in  trays  and  carried  at  once  into  the  green- 
houses, or  into  a  shed  where  they  can  be  shaded  and  kept  as  cool  as  pos- 
sible, and  should  never  be  allowed  to  lie  around,  in  the  sun  to  become 
dried  out  and  wilted,  as  such  treatment  is  decidedly  detrimental.  In 
some  soils  a  slight  ball  of  earth  may  be  taken  up  with  the  roots.  In  hard, 
stiff  clay  soils  that  are  inclined  to  bake,  it  is  frequently  essential  to  take  in  a 
considerable  ball  of  earth ;  otherwise  a  large  portion  of  the  root  system  is 
lost.  In  our  soil  at  Queens,  a  light  ball  of  earth,  about  four  to  four  and  a  half 
inches  in  diameter,  rilled  with  fibrous  roots,  is  generally  secured  with  plants 
that  are  planted  in  the  field  from  pots.  But  where  planted  from  flats,  or  in  the 
case  of  cuttings  planted  direct  from  the  sand  to  the  field,  it  is  not  possible 
to  get  such  balls  of  earth,  the  soil  shaking  off  the  roots  entirely  without  doing 
material  damage. 

Selection  of  Stock  in  Digging 

In  digging  plants  they  should  be  carefully  selected ;  that  is,  the  digger 
should  go  over  the  field  and  select  those  of  even  size.  A  second  selection 
should  also  be  made,  and  even  a  third.  In  case  the  plants  are  small,  they 
may  be  doubled  up  in  order  to  fill  the  spaces.  The  object  of  this  selection  is 
to  get  a  more  even  stand  of  growth  and  bloom  upon  the  benches. 

Planting  on  Benches 

Planting  upon  the  bench  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  opera- 
tions connected  with  carnation  growing.  If  it  is  not  properly  done,  a  great 
variation  and  diminution  of  the  crop  may  be  expected.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  plant  too  deeply.  The  plant  should  stand  no  deeper  in  the  soil 
upon  the  bench  than  it  does  in  the  field.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  well 

43 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

firmed  around  the  roots,  so  that  the  plant  will  remain  erect  after  setting.  In 
light  soils,  the  best  planters  use  their  fists  for  firming,  pounding  the  earth 
lightly  around  the  neck  of  the  plant,  and  especially  around  the  roots.  A 
broad,  shallow  hole  should  be  made,  and  the  roots  of  the  plant  spread 
out  so  that  they  occupy  about  the  same  relative  position  to  the  top  as  was 
occupied  when  growing  in  the  field. 

Watering  the  Bench  After  Planting 

After  planting  comes  another  most  important  operation — that  of  water- 
ing. Some  writers  have  recommended  soaking  the  bench  thoroughly  in  order 
to  set  the  soil,  putting  the  water  on  so  heavily  that  it  will  run  through  the 
bottom  of  the  bench.  I  have  found  this  method  to  be  seriously  objectionable, 
and  many  plants  have  been  lost  by  stem  rot  whenever  it  was  practiced.  When 
planting,  I  much  prefer  to  depend  on  firming  the  soil  with  the  hand  and  fist 
to  firming  it  by  soaking  with  water.  We  have  found  that  the  best  results  have 
been  secured  when  a  light  watering  was  given  immediately  after  planting  in. 
As  soon  as  the  soil  has  properly  assimilated  and  distributed  this  water,  an- 
other light  watering  is  afforded,  which  is  followed  up  during  the  daytime  until 
the  bench  is  nicely  moistened  throughout ;  but  the  soil  is  not  sodden,  nor  has 
it  been  so  compacted  by  a  sudden  drenching  of  water  as  to  render  it  muddy 
and  impervious  to  aeration. 

Shading 

Previous  to  planting,  the  greenhouses  should  be  shaded  sufficiently  to 
modify  the  action  of  the  sun  to  such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  the  wilting  of  the 
plants.  This  shading  should  not  be  too  dense,  as  if  the  plants  are  shaded  too 
much  they  will  be  considerably  softened  and  will  withstand  the  sun  much  less 
effectively  when  the  shading  is  removed.  We  have  practiced  using  a  shade 
that  will  wash  off  during  rain  storms  and  leave  the  houses  light  and  clean 
during  cloudy  weather.  Fire-clay,  or  any  ordinary  clean  clay,  has  been  em- 
ployed with  great  success.  It  can  be  easily  applied  at  the  end  of  cloudy 
weather  by  spraying  it  upon  the  glass  with  a  syringe,  and  thus  the  shading 
may  be  renewed  and  kept  on  until  the  plants  have  become  established,  when 
it  should  be  allowed  to  wear  off  gradually.  There  should  be  no  shade 
upon  the  houses  in  the  early  part  of  October,  but  the  glass  should  be 
thoroughly  clean  and  bright,  so  that  the  plants  will  have  all  the  light  possible 
during  the  short  days  of  the  fall  and  winter.  After  planting,  when  the 
bench  soil  has  become  nicely  moist  throughout,  water  should  be  withheld, 
a  slight  spraying  only  being  necessary  until  root  action  has  set  in  and  the 

44 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

foliage  straightens  up  and  becomes  plump.  This  is  an  indication  that  the 
plants  have  taken  hold  of  the  soil  and  are  ready  to  grow.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  plants  properly  moist  as  soon  as  they  have  commenced 
growth,  for  more  depends  upon  watering  the  benches  and  keeping  the 
soil  in  proper  condition  during  the  fall  and  early  winter  months  than  upon 
almost  any  other  feature  of  carnation  growing.  If  fancy  flowers  are  to  be 
grown,  care  must  be  used  that  the  benches  shall  not  dry  out  to  such  an  ex- 


•• 


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e   r     ••***•        *•    ' 

*r 


••"»     ~     ,    •    '     '    '»-   .^»^  ',V'f~"A\    ?t 
„          .-        ^.<-".*'^    <T'    -     k      "f^ 
>    ^        5     %   **_«    *   -^      ' 

AM,    *ft  ^*  -"^       * 

T*M  *r      ^,.  • 


Cell-nation  Governor  Roosevelt 
The  same  house  as  shown  on  page  42,  in  November  following,  just  coming  into  bloom 

tent  as  to  cause  the  plants  to  wilt.  Wilting  hardens  the  plant,  shortens  the 
stem  and  tends  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  flower ;  and  while  such  a  check  will 
probably  produce  a  larger  crop  of  flowers  at  a  given  period,  the  quality  will 
be  inferior,  as  the  blooms  will  usually  be  smaller  and  the  stems  shorter.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  soil  is  kept  too  wet,  it  will  in  time  become  sour  and 


45 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

sodden,  the  feeding  roots  of  the  plant  will  be  destroyed,  and  growth  will  be 
practically  suspended  until  such  time  as  the  plant  may  recover. 

Cultivation  of  Soil  in  Benches 

After  the  plants  have  become  well  established,  a  shallow  cultivation  of 
the  soil  will  be  beneficial.  This  cultivation  should  not  be  so  deep  as  to 
materially  injure  the  feeding  roots.  All  weeds  should  be  removed,  and  if 
a  green  mold  forms  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil  it  should  be  scraped  off 


Bench  of  Carnation  Governor  Roosevelt,  illustrating  combination 
method  01  Carnation  Supports 

or  removed  by  the  application  of  some  such  agent  as  soot  or  a  light  dressing 
of  sheep  manure. 

Staking  and  Tying 

The  staking  and  tying  up  of  the  carnation  plants  should  be  begun  as 
soon  as  the  blooming  stems  have  commenced  to  push  up,  and  the  plant  should 
be  brought  under  control  before  it  has  started  to  run  up  its  flowering  shoots 
to  any  extent.  This  must  be  attended  to  promptly  if  straight,  stiff  stems  are 
to  be  secured,  otherwise  the  plant  will  grow  ill-shapen,  the  stems  will  become 

46 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 

crooked,  and  the  selling  value  of  the  flowers  be  thereby  impaired.    The  differ- 
ent systems  of  staking  and  tying  carnation  plants  are  described  in  Chapter  X. 

Feeding  Benched  Plants 

In  from  six  to  eight  weeks,  the  carnation  plants  will  have  rilled  the 
benches  entirely  with  roots  and  have  commenced  to  exhaust,  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  shallow  soil  in  which  they  are  growing.  At  this  time,  light  feeding 
in  the  way  of  applications  of  manure  water  or  light  mulches  may  be  given. 
It  is  important  that  such  feedings  should  be  afforded  lightly  and  frequently 
rather  than  in  heavy  doses.  The  food  should  be  introduced  into  the  soil  just 
about  as  fast  as  the  plants  need  it  for  use.  If  given  in  small  quantities  at 
regular  periods,  the  carnation  roots  will  be  able  to  handle  all  of  the  available 
chemical  ingredients,  and  this  will  tend  to  keep  the  soil  fresh  and  sweet; 
whereas,  if  a  surplus  of  food  over  and  above  the  requirements  of  the  plant 
is  introduced  into  the  soil,  an  acid  condition  will  likely  be  produced,  in  which 
case  all  plant  food  must  be  withheld,  and,  probably,  a  good  watering  of  lime 
water,  or  a  dressing  of  air-slacked  lime,  be  used  to  correct  the  acidity.  It 
has  been  our  practice  during  the  month  of  October  to  treat  the  surface  soil  of 
the  benches  with  a  moderate  dressing  of  pulverized  sheep  manure.  This  is 
frequently  mixed  with  Scotch  soot,  the  proportion  being  half  and  half,  and 
applied  so  as  to  color  the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  serves  the  purpose  of 
fertilization  as  well  as  preventing  the  growth  of  the  green  scum  or  surface 
mold. 

Stopping  or  Topping 

As  soon  as  the  flowering  shoots  lengthen,  those  of  a  weak,  spindling 
character  should  be  topped,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  first  crop  of 
flowers  with  vigorous,  long  stems.  Stopping  the  flowering  shoots  after  plant- 
ing has  a  tendency  to  throw  the  crop  later  into  the  winter  months,  and  it  may 
be  practiced  where  it  is  desirable  to  sacrifice  the  early  blooms  in  order  to 
secure  heavier  crops  at  Christmas  or  during  the  winter  months,  when 
flowers  bring  a  higher  price. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  study  the  habits  of  growth  of  different 
varieties  of  carnations  in  order  that  each  variety  may  be  topped  at  the  proper 
time.  Some  carnations  will  not  give  crops  of  bloom  until  late  midwinter  or 
the  ensuing  spring  if  topped  after  the  ist  of  August ;  others  can  be  topped  as 
late  as  the  middle  of  September  and  brought  into  full  crop  during  the  holidays. 

47 


General  Greenhouse  Culture 
Disbudding 

Where  fancy  flowers  are  aimed  at,  disbudding  is  imperative,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  do  the  work  early,  otherwise  the  size  of  the  bloom  and  the  strength 
of  the  stem  will  be  reduced  and  the  object  of  disbudding  defeated.  The 
lateral  buds  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  this  can  be  done  without  injuring 
the  stem  or  the  terminal  bud.  In  varieties  that  are  inclined  to  throw  their 
blooms  late,  the  period  of  flowering  may  be  hastened  by  removing  the  side 
growths,  or  pips,  from  the  blooming  stems. 

Insects  and  Fumigation 

Insects  should  never  be  seen  in  the  greenhouse.  Preventive  measures 
should  be  put  into  force  promptly  and  practiced  constantly.  For  aphis,  com- 
monly called  green  fly,  nothing  is  better  than  fumigating  with  tobacco  early 
in  the  season.  This  should  be  done  at  least  once  a  week,  selecting  cool 
nights  for  the  operation.  Later  on,  when  the  plants  are  in  bloom,  fumigating 
with  tobacco  is  objectionable,  as  it  impairs  the  odor  of  the  flowers.  During 
the  winter  time,  when  the  plants  are  in  full  bloom,  we  have  used  the  various 
preparations  of  tobacco  extract  to  advantage.  These  preparations  are  mixed 
to  the  consistency  of  thin  paint  by  the  addition  of  water,  and  with  them  the 
heating  pipes  are  painted  once  a  week,  and  sometimes  twice.  Where  the 
green  fly  has  been  eradicated  by  thorough  fumigation,  painting  of  the  heating 
pipes  with  tobacco  extract  is  generally  sufficient  to  keep  the  pest  in  check. 
Thrips  succumb  to  repeated  and  persistent  fumigation  with  tobacco  stems. 
These  insects  are  far  more  persistent  than  green  fly,  much  more  difficult  to 
eradicate,  and  their  depredations  are  much  more  serious,  as  they  usually 
attack  the  buds  and  destroy  the  flowers  before  they  open. 

Diseases 

The  various  fungi  infesting  carnations  will  not  prevail  to  any  extent 
if  the  plants  are  kept  in  a  clean,  healthy,  growing  condition.  Plants 
improperly  cared  for  are  always  sources  of  disease.  Any  neglect,  such  as 
inattention  to  watering  and  ventilation,  too  violent  changes  of  temperature, 
or  keeping  the  foliage  of  the  plants  wet  at  night,  especially  if  such  over 
watering  or  wetting  of  the  foliage  is  followed  by  sudden  falls  of  temper- 
ature, will  have  a  tendency  to  develop  fungus.  It  may  be  safely  stated  that 
such  improper  treatment,  and  a  close,  dank  atmosphere,  are  the  principal 
causes  of  fungous  diseases  in  carnations. 


VIOLA    ALLEN  GLORIOSUM  A  SCARLET 

White,  Variegated  Pink  Yellow  Self  FLAKED   FANCY 

PLATE   1,      SEEDLING    CARNATIONS   (WARD) 


CHAPTER  IV 

Soils 

THE  character  of  the  soil  plays  a  most  important  part  in  the  successful 
cultivation  of  any  species  of  plant.  Unless  the  soil  is  suited  to  the 
needs  and  constitutional  characteristics  of  a  plant,  success  in  the 
cultivation  of  such  plant,  if  attained  at  all,  will  be  but  indifferent.  It, 
therefore,  becomes  essential  to  study  well  the  soil  where  it  is  proposed  to 
grow  carnations,  and  to  select  one  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  these  plants. 
This  will  not  only  insure  a  greater  measure  of  success,  but  of  economy  as 
well,  for  the  deficiencies  in  soils  must  be  made  up  by  artificial  manipulation, 
and  the  addition  of  such  constituents  as  may  be  lacking. 

Carnations  succeed  well  in  a  great  variety  of  soils  of  varying  textures, 
demonstrating  that  a  wide  divergence  of  mechanical  texture,  or  density 
(heaviness  or  lightness)  may  furnish  good  results.  Nevertheless,  there 
are  certain  textures  of  soil  that  possess  material  advantages  over  others. 
Extremely  light,  sandy  soils  that  suffer  in  droughts,  as  well  as  heavy,  stiff, 
cold  soils  that  bake  and  become  hardened,  should  in  general  be  avoided. 
Good  carnations  may  be  grown  on  such  soils,  but  success  will  be  uncertain 
and  at  an  additional  cost  of  care  and  attention. 

The  best  carnation  soil  is  a  good,  strong,  semi-sandy  loam,  with  con- 
siderable body,  one  that  will  retain  moisture  well  and  at  the  same  time  is  not 
so  dense  and  compact  as  to  become  sour  and  sodden.  A  well-drained  location 
should  be  selected,  and  soils  from  situations  where  water  stands  on  the 
surface  for  any  length  of  time  should  be  avoided,  unless  such  soils  can  be  com- 
posted and  exposed  to  aeration  and  freezing  for  some  time  before  they  are 
used. 

In  selecting  soils  for  field  culture,  wherever  possible,  one  well  furnished 
with  an  abundance  of  fibrous  material  should  be  chosen.  An  old  sod  lot 
that  has  been  pastured  by  cows  or  sheep  makes  an  ideal  location.  In  the 
preparation  of  «mch  a  field,  a  moderate  coating  of  stable  manure  should  be 
evenly  spread  over  the  field  in  August  or  early  September.  The  land  should 
then  be  ploughed  at  least  ten  inches  deep,  ploughing  to  be  followed  by  a 
thorough  cultivation  with  the  disk  harrow.  During  the  latter  part  of  October 

4  49 


Soils 

it  should  be  again  ploughed  and  allowed  to  remain  rough  over  winter,  in  order 
that  frost  may  thoroughly  penetrate  all  portions  of  the  soil.  Where  the  soil 
is  not  naturally  quite  fertile,  an  additional  coating  of  manure  may  be  applied 
and  turned  under  with  advantage  as  late  in  November  as  the  ground  can  be 
properly  ploughed.  This  treatment  insures  an  abundance  of  fertilizing  ma- 
terial in  varying  stages  of  decomposition  and  assimilation,  thus  placing 
within  reach  of  the  plant  sufficient  digestible  plant  food  upon  which  to  build 
its  growth  and  constitution,  and  renders  possible  the  storing  up  of  the  neces- 
sary energy  to  enable  the  carnation  to  respond  to  the  trying  forcing  which 
follows  during  the  fall  and  winter  months. 

The  following  spring,  the  field  should  be  ploughed  and  harrowed  as  soon 
as  the  ground  is  in  a  fit  condition,  then  allowed  to  stand  until  planting  time, 
when  it  should  be  again  ploughed  and  thoroughly  harrowed,  finishing  up  with 
the  Acme  harrow,  just  ahead  of  the  planting  gang,  so  that  planting  may 
always  be  done  in  freshly-prepared  soil.  To  those  who  might  object  to  so 
much  ploughing  and  harrowing,  it  may  be  said  that  such  treatment  insures 
an  ideal  mechanical  condition  and  a  thorough  and  complete  incorporation 
of  the  fertilizing  materials  and  vegetable  fiber  with  the  soil. 

The  location  and  exposure  of  the  carnation  field  are  of  some  importance. 
A  level  piece  of  land  that  will  not  wash  in  rain  storms  should  be  selected. 
Soils  that  can  be  sub-irrigated,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  celery  fields  in 
Kalamazoo  and  other  parts  of  Michigan  are  irrigated,  should  make  good 
carnation  fields.  Any  location  where  the  water  will  collect  in  pools  and 
stand  upon  the  surface  during  heavy  rain  storms  should  be  avoided.  A 
southerly  or  southeasterly  exposure  is  to  be  preferred,  as  in  such  a  position 
the  sun  strikes  the  plants  early  in  the  morning,  drying  off  the  dew.  South- 
westerly, as  well  as  westerly  and  northwesterly  exposures  are  not  as  good  be- 
cause in  the  hot  dry  days  of  July  and  August  the  plants  will  suffer  there.  If 
an  exposure  protected  from  heavy  winds  and  gales  can  be  secured,  so  much 
the  better,  as  high  winds  cause  much  injury  by  whipping  the  plants  about, 
breaking  off  branches  and  splitting  the  main  stem  at  the  collar. 

Preparation  of  Soils  for  Bench  Culture 

Bench  soil  should  be  materially  richer  than  that  in  the  carnation  field,  and 
the  field  soil  should  be  also  sensibly  richer  than  the  one  used  for  potting  up 
the  young  plants.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  field  soil  should  not  be 
made  richer  than  that  used  upon  benches,  as  in  such  cases  the  plant  will 
receive  a  check  when  removed  from  the  richer  to  the  poorer  soil. 

Of  the  methods  in  vogue  for  preparing  bench  soils,  I  will  repeat  that  the 

50 


Soils 

English  method  of  stacking  sods  and  manure  and  turning  them  over  fre- 
quently can  scarcely  be  improved  upon  so  far  as  practical  results  are  concerned, 
providing  the  work  is  properly  done.     But  it  is  an  expensive  method,  and 
on  account  of  the  larger  amount  of  manual  labor  involved,  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  such  soil  heaps  is  apt  to  be  neglected,  in  which  case  the  center  of  the 
heaps  will  become  sour  and  the  value  of  the  soil  lessened.    There  are  advo- 
cates of  the  system  of  piling  sods,  as  well  as  the  preparation  in  the  field  by 
ploughing  under  the  sod  and  harrowing  in  the  manure.     It  is  important  to 
have  the  soil  used  for  bench  culture  well  enriched  with  thoroughly  decom- 
posed manure  some  time  before  putting  the  soil  on  the  benches.     In  the 
preparation  of  compost  heaps,  an  old  sod  lot  will  furnish  the  best  material. 
The  sod  may  be  pared  off  to  the  depth  of  four  to  five  inches  and  built  up  in 
layers  on  a  heap,  in  the  proportion  of  a  layer  of  soil  four  inches  in  thick- 
ness to  a  layer  of  manure  one  inch  in  thickness,  building  up  the  heap  layer 
upon  layer  until  it  is  about  the  height  of  a  man's  shoulder.    This  should  be 
done  in  the  early  fall,  previous  to  the  season  when  the  soil  is  to  be  used.    A 
good  plan  is  to  make  up  these  heaps  during  the  months  of  September  and 
October,  allowing  them  to  stand  well  into  December,  when  they  should  be 
turned  over  in  a  thorough  manner  and  the  manure  well  incorporated  with  the 
soil.    The  heap  should  be  turned  once  or  twice  during  the  winter,  and  again 
the  first  thing  in  the  spring,  with  an  additional  turning  before  the  time  for 
filling  the  benches  is  at  hand.    In  the  preparation  of  such  soils,  lime  and  salt 
may  be  used  to  advantage.    Lime  may  be  applied  to  all  such  composts  where 
the  basic  soil  is  deficient  in  that  material.     It  is  sometimes  employed  in  the 
air-slacked  state  and  mixed  with  the  compost  at  the  last  turning  over  in  the 
fall.    In  soils  deficient  in  lime,  a  bushel  of  the  latter  to  thirty  or  forty  bushels 
of  soil  may  be  used,  and  five  to  six  pounds  of  common  salt  to  the  same 
quantity  of  soil  may  be  also  added.    Hardwood  ashes  can  likewise  be  used  in 
the  preparation  of  such  compost  heaps,  but  I  have  failed  to  see  much  material 
benefit  from  the  employment  of  such  ashes.    Where  the  soils  are  inclined  to  be 
too  heavy,  hardwood  ashes  will  tend  to  produce  a  good  mechanical  condition. 
The  chief  value  of  hardwood  ashes  seems  to  be  in  the  amount  of  potash  they 
contain,  but  it  is  usually  more  expensive  to  purchase  potash  in  the  form  of 
hardwood  ashes  than  it  is  to  buy  it  as  sulphate  or  muriate  of  potash.     Soils 
containing  a  large  quantity  of  vegetable  fiber,  such  as  sod  roots,  are  vastly 
superior  for  carnation  culture  to  those  which  have  been  cultivated  so  long 
as  to  exhaust  the  vegetable  fiber,  and  for  this  reason  it  has  been  our  practice 
to  seed  down  a  certain  area  of  land  each  year  to  be  kept  under  sod  until 
needed.    This  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  bench  soils  with  an 


Soils 

abundance  of  vegetable  fiber,  as  well  as  to  render  available  for  the  purpose 
of  field  culture  an  abundant  area  well  supplied  with  vegetable  fiber.  Where 
no  sod  lot  or  pasture  lands  are  available,  the  only  alternative  is  to  apply  a 
heavy  coating  of  coarse,  well-rotted  manure  to  the  field  and  plough  under, 
ploughing  several  times  as  before  described.  Many  growers  have  no  other 
soil  than  this,  and  accomplish  very  good  results.  But  wherever  sods  or 
pasture  lots  are  to  be  had,  they  are  to  be  preferred. 

Preparation  of  Bench  Soils  in  the  Field 

About  the  latter  part  of  August,  select  a  piece  of  ground  of  sufficient 
size  to  furnish  all  the  sod  required  when  the  land  is  ploughed  to  the  depth  of 
six  inches.  Give  this  ground  a  covering  of  well-rotted  stable  manure,  putting 
on  sufficient  to  make  an  even  coating  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
thickness.  This  should  be  spread  evenly,  the  ground  ploughed  to  a  depth 
of  six  inches  and  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  until  about  the  middle  of 
October;  it  should  then  be  ploughed  again  and  thoroughly  broken  up  with 
a  disk  harrow.  A  third  ploughing  should  be  done  late  in  November,  just 
before  the  land  freezes  up,  leaving  the  ground  rough,  so  that  frost  will  more 
easily  penetrate  all  the  soil  proposed  to  be  removed  to  the  benches.  This 
thorough  freezing  has  a  tendency  to  kill  all  insects  and  larvae  which  might 
otherwise  exist  through  the  winter  and  be  taken  into  the  greenhouses  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  In  the  spring  the  ground  should  be  ploughed  as  early  as 
possible ;  that  is,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  and  the  soil  sufficiently  dried  to 
work  easily,  and  this  ploughing  should  be  repeated  two  or  three  times,  at 
interval  of  three  or  four  weeks,  finally  throwing  the  soil  together  in  long 
ridges  with  alley-ways  between,  so  that  when  removing  the  soil  from  the 
field  to  the  greenhouses,  the  carts  may  be  driven  in  the  alleys,  between 
the  ridges,  and  the  soil  will  not  be  tramped  on  or  compacted  by  driving 
over  it. 

Where  carnations  are  grown  in  the  same  field  year  after  year,  the  soil 
will  eventually  become  exhausted ;  it  is  also  liable  to  become  infested  with  the 
various  fungi  and  insect  enemies  of  the  carnation.  A  frequent  change  of 
location  is,  therefore,  imperative  in  order  to  avoid  the  various  fungous  dis- 
eases that  infect  the  roots  as  well  as  the  plants.  It  is  also  important  to 
practice  a  system  of  rotating  crops  upon  locations  where  carnations  are  grown. 
Our  experience  has  taught  us  to  avoid  planting  such  crops  as  beets  of  any 
kind,  potatoes,  or  other  root  crops,  the  roots  of  which  are  infected  with 
various  fungi.  The  stem  rot  fungus  which  causes  so  much  damage  to  car- 
nations also  attacks  the  beet,  producing  what  is  known  as  the  beet  scab,  and 

52 


Soils 

where  beets  are  grown  as  a  crop  preceding  carnations,  the  latter  are  liable 
to  suffer  from  the  stem  rot. 

Some  growers  advocate  the  practice  of  using  carnation  soils  on  the 
benches  for  two  years.  We  have  tried  this  to  a  limited  extent,  but  the  re- 
sults have  not  been  favorable.  It  may  be  that  sterilization  of  soils,  as  de- 
scribed in  this  chapter,  with  the  addition  of  vegetable  fiber  to  old  bench  soils, 
will  make  it  possible  to  utilize  soils  two  or  more  years  in  succession ;  in  fact, 
recent  experiments  in  sterilizing  old  bench  soil  and  using  it  a  second  year 
indicate  that  it  can  be  done  to  advantage. 

In  the  preparation  of  soils  for  either  field  or  bench  culture,  commercial 
fertilizers  may  be  used  in  place  of  stable  manure,  but  where  such  fertilizers 
are  employed  it  is  important  that  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  be 
properly  cared  for  by  the  addition  of  vegetable  fiber.  Commercial  fertilizers 
may  also  be  scattered  in  the  drills  where  the  young  carnations  are  to  be 
planted.  Our  practice  has  been  to  apply  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  of  fertilizer 
to  the  acre;  that  is,  where  carnations  are  planted  in  rows  twenty-four  inches 
apart.  This  is  sown  with  a  fertilizer  machine  immediately  before  the  carna- 
tions are  planted.  The  machine  used  is  one  that  thoroughly  mixes  the  fer- 
tilizer as  it  is  sown  with  the  soil  in  the  drill.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
fertilizer  is  spread  evenly ;  otherwise,  some  plants  may  suffer  by  getting  too 
large  a  quantity. 

Composition  of  Potting  Soil  for  Young  Plants 

The  soil  in  which  to  pot  carnation  cuttings  taken  from  the  sand  bench 
should  contain  very  little  fertilizer.  One  of  the  best  compositions  we  have 
found  consists  of  sod  which  has  been  pared  off  about  four  to  five  inches  in 
thickness  and  composted  thoroughly  without  any  manure.  When  the  sod  is 
thoroughly  decomposed,  it  should  be  run  through  a  very  coarse  sieve.  The 
Florists'  Supply  Company's  Sod  Crusher  answers  the  purpose  very  well. 

For  the  second  potting,  similar  decomposed  sod  can  be  used,  to  which  has 
been  added  a  small  quantity  of  pulverized  sheep  dung,  or  any  thoroughly  well- 
rotted  manure.  When  shifting  young  carnation  plants,  five-sixths  sod  and 
one-sixth  very  old  and  well-decomposed  manure  is  an  excellent  soil  to  use. 
If  the  soil  from  which  the  sod  is  taken  is  of  a  clayey  nature,  the  addition  of 
one-tenth  to  one-sixth,  in  bulk,  of  coarse  sartd  will  be  found  beneficial.  In 
preparing  soil  for  carnations  to  be  flowered  in  pots,  a  compost  made  of  three- 
fifths  sod,  one-fifth  or  even  more  of  thoroughly  well-rotted  manure,  one- 
tenth  leaf  mold  and  one-tenth  coarse  sand,  will  give  excellent  results.  The 
quantity  of  sand  and  leaf  mold  should  be  increased  or  decreased  according 

53 


Soils 

to  the  friability  of  the  soil  upon  which  the  sod  has  grown ;  and  where  the 
basic  soil  is  a  sandy  loam,  the  leaf  mold  and  sand  may  be  omitted. 

Upward  of  seventy  years  ago,  carnations  were  extensively  grown  in  Eng- 
land for  exhibition  purposes.  The  different  English  growers  brought  to  a 
state  of  great  perfection  the  variety  of  carnation  which  they  then  grew. 
Flowers  from  three  to  four  inches  in  diameter,  upon  stems  thirty  to  forty- 
five  inches  in  length,  were  grown  and  exhibited.  (See  quotations  from  Don 
and  Hogg,  Chapter  i.) 

Thomas  Hogg,  the  great  carnation  grower  of  that  date,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing formula  for  the  preparation  of  soil  in  which  to  grow  carnations : 

"Take  three  barrows  of  loam,  one  and  a  half  barrows  of  garden  mold,  ten  barrows 
of  horse  dung,  one  barrow  of  coarse  sand.  Let  these  be  mixed  and  thrown  together 
in  a  heap  and  turned  two  or  three  times  in  the  winter,  particularly  in  frosty  weather, 
that  it  may  be  well  incorporated.  On  a  dry  day  towards  the  end  of  November  take 
a  barrow  of  fresh  lime,  which  as  soon  as  slack  strew  over  while  hot  in  turning  the  heap. 
This  accelerates  the  rotting  of  the  fibrous  particles  of  the  loam,  lightens  the  soil  and 
destroys  the  grub  worms  and  slugs.  If  there  be  much  rain  during  the  winter  so  that 
the  strength  of  the  compost  is  reduced  and  the  salt  washed  from  it,  take  about  seven 
pounds  of  damaged  salt  and  add  to  the  compost  heap,  either  dissolved  in  water  or 
strewed  on  the  heap  by  hand.  The  addition  of  the  salt  will  be  attended  with  the  most 
beneficial  result  upon  the  future  health  and  vigor  of  the  plants.  This  compost  should 
be  protected  from  washing  rains  and  should  be  allowed  to  lie  at  least  six  months  before 
it  is  used.  For  flowers  that  are  apt  to  sport  in  color,  and  especially  for  the  yellow 
picotees,  the  strength  of  the  compost  should  be  lowered,  using  three  barrows  of  sound 
staple  loam,  two  barrows  of  old  rotten  cow  dung,  one  barrow  of  horse  dung,  one-half  a 
barrow  of  sand  and  one-half  a  barrow  of  lime  rubbish,  and  prepare  and  incorporate  well 
as  above  described." 

Haddock,  another  celebrated  English  carnation  grower,  prepared  his 
compost  as  follows : 

"One-half  in  bulk  of  rotten  horse  dung  one  year  old;  one-third  fresh  sound  loam; 
one-sixth  coarse  sea  or  river  sand.  Mix  these  ingredients  together  in  autumn,  laying 
in  a  heap  about  three  feet  thick,  turning  three  or  four  times  during  the  winter,  especially 
in  frosty  weather,  when  it  should  be  laid  out  sufficiently  thin  that  the  whole  mass  may 
be  thoroughly  frozen.  This  will  be  fit  for  use  in  the  following  spring.  The  earth  and 
sand  may  be  added  to  it  in  March,  and  the  whole  should  then  be  well  mixed.  Where 
the  air  is  pure,  experience  has  pointed  out  the  propriety  of  using  less  dung  and  more 
loam ;  therefore,  the  quantity  of  sand,  loam  and  dung  should  be  in  this  case  reversed." 

From  these  descriptions  of  the  soils  used  by  the  English  growers  of 
seventy  years  ago,  the  reader  will  gather  the  inference  that  the  carnation  is 
about  as  gross  a  feeder  as  any  plant  that  we  have.  I  mention  this  fact  par- 
ticularly, as  some  years  ago  many  carnation  growers  throughout  the  United 

54 


a, 
5 

51 


Soils 

States  criticised  severely  the  introducers  of  new  varieties,  "because  they  grew 
their  carnations  in  very  rich  soil."  Some  writers  announced  that  carnations 
would  not  stand  heavy  fertilization;  that  the  addition  of  large  quantities  of 
fertilizing  material  was  detrimental.  There  is,  however,  one  point  to  be  noted 
in  the  preparation  of  these  composts,  and  that  is,  the  difference  between  the 
climates  of  England  and  America.  Maddock  states  that  where  the  air  is 
pure  and  clear  less  fertilizing  materials  are  required,  and  recommends  a  re- 
duction in  the  quantity  of  manure.  This  would  indicate  that  carnation  com- 
posts for  use  in  the  United  States  should  not  be  as  rich  as  those  made  by  the 
English  growers  of  seventy  years  ago.  Another  point  in  the  preparation  of 
the  English  composts  that  should  be  noted  is,  the  comparatively  large  quan- 
tity of  lime  employed  in  the  constitution  of  these  composts,  which  probably 
performed  the  office  of  neutralizing  the  acidity  of  the  soil  that  the  use  of 
such  large  quantities  of  manure  would  create. 

Sterilizing  Soils 

Of  late  years  considerable  experimental  work  has  been  done  in  the  steril- 
ization of  soils  with  heat,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  grubs  and  worms, 
insects  and  insects'  eggs,  as  well  as  the  seeds  of  noxious  weeds ;  also  the 
spores  of  the  various  fungi  that  prey  upon  the  carnation  plant.  Very  ben- 
eficial results  are  claimed  to  be  secured  by  such  sterilization,  some  growers 
stating  that  not  only  freedom  from  noxious  insects,  weeds  and  fungi  is  ob- 
tained, but  the  plants  make  a  better  growth  and  produce  a  more  vigorous, 
continuous  crop  of  flowers,  of  better  quality.  This  I  have  not  as  yet  proved, 
but  have  practiced  sterilization  to  some  extent  with,  apparently,  substantial 
beneficial  results. 

The  most  approved  method  of  soil  sterilization  is  by  steam.  There  are 
a  number  of  apparatus  used  for  this  purpose,  the  principle  of  all  of  them 
being  the  filling  of  the  soil  with  superheated  steam,  raising  the  temperature 
to  190  to  212  degrees,  which  is  sufficient  to  destroy  all  animal  life  in  the 
soil  as  well  as  all  fungi  and  most  seeds. 

The  following  method  of  sterilization  has  been  practiced  with  con- 
siderable success,  and  can  be  installed  at  comparatively  little  expense  by 
growers  who  heat  their  houses  with  steam :  Take  one-inch  pipe  of  even 
lengths — say,  sixteen,  eighteen  or  twenty  feet;  drill  holes  through  this 
pipe  at  a  distance  of  eight  inches  apart  throughout  its  entire  length, 
using  a  drill  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Close  up 
one  end  of  each  piece  of  pipe  with  a  cap,  through  which  has 
been  drilled  two  similar  holes ;  take  five  two-inch  by  one-inch 


Soils 

crosses  and  a  two-inch  tee,  connecting  these  with  nipples  forming  a  header 
which  shall  be  about  four  inches  shorter  than  the  width  of  the  bench  in  which 
the  soil  is  to  be  sterilized;  screw  the  one-inch  pipes  into  this  header  firmly, 
leaving  them  so  that  the  openings  of  the  drill  holes  will  stand  at  the  sides  of 
the  pipe  and  not  up  and  down.  The  object  of  this  is  to  force  the  steam  later- 
ally through  the  soil,  and  not  upward.  If  the  hole  stands  upward  the 
pressure  of  steam  will  drive  an  opening  straight  through  the  soil  to  the  sur- 
face, and  the  steam  will  escape  through  this  aperture  without  penetrating  the 
soil.  The  accompanying  drawings  will  show  better  how  the  header  is  made 
than  can  be  conveyed  by  a  description.  When  this  apparatus  is  completed  and 


Header 

placed  in  the  bench,  it  should  be  connected  with  the  steam  main  by  a  two- 
inch  pipe.  A  right  and  left  coupling,  or  a  union,  may  be  used  to  connect 
with  the  steam  pipes.  When  finished,  this  will  make  an  apparatus  that  will 
sterilize  the  soil  in  thirty  to  forty  feet  of  bench,  according  to  the  lengths 
of  one-inch  pipe  used.  Place  the  apparatus  in  the  bottom  of  the  bench,  and 
fill  the  remainder  of  the  bench  with  soil,  so  that  the  entire  machine  is  fully 
covered  to  a  depth  of  six  to  seven  inches,  extending  ten  to  twelve  inches  be- 
yond the  ends  of  the  pipes.  Now  cover  the  surface  of  this  soil  with  old  gunny 
sacks,  or  pieces,  of  burlap,  horse  blankets,  or  any  old  cloth  that  may  be  at 
hand.  A  pressure  of  fifty  pounds  of  steam  should  be  carried  upon  the  boiler 
at  the  time  of  injecting  the  steam  into  the  soil.  Open  the  valves  gradually, 
and  allow  the  steam  to  run  into  the  sterilizing  machine,  lightly  at  first,  increas- 
ing the  pressure  so  that  the  entire  force  of  steam  will  be  turned  into  the  soil 
within  one  minute  from  the  time  the  valve  is  opened.  Let  this  steam  blow 
into  the  soil  for  twenty  to  thirty  minutes,  after  which  time  it  may  be  turned 
off  and  the  sterilizing  pipes  taken  out,  although  these  may  be  allowed  to  re- 
main some  considerable  time  if  desired.  If  the  boiler  is  of  sufficient  capacity 
to  keep  up  the  steam  pressure  of  ten,  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds,  it  will  raise 
the  temperature  in  the  soil  to  about  205  degrees.  This  is  sufficient  to  kill 
all  of  the  bugs,  earth  worms,  wire  worms  and  other  insects  which  infest 
the  soil,  and  to  destroy  almost  all  weed  seeds  and  spores  of  fungi. 

57 


Soils 


After  this  treatment  the  soil  will  be  too  damp  for  working,  and  should 
be  allowed  to  stand  two  or  three  days  before  planting  is  begun.  The  sterilizer 
may  be  removed  by  means  of  wires  fastened  around  the  header  and  at  the 
farther  ends  of  each  one  of  the  lateral  pipes.  It  may  be  pulled  straight  up 
out  of  the  soil  and  carried  to  another  portion  of  the  bench  and  the  operation 
repeated. 

I  am  somewhat  of  the  opinion  that  this  steaming  may  be  beneficial  in  the 


Soil  Sterilizer  in  Operation 

way  of  disintegrating  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  soil  necessary  to  plant 
growth,  rendering  soluble  a  greater  percentage  than  would  be  the  case  if 
the  soil  were  not  sterilized,  but  so  far  as  my  personal  experience  goes,  I 
have  not  yet  proven  this  to  be  the  case.  It  is  certain  that  the  killing  of  all 
insect  life  and  the  destruction  of  the  seeds  of  all  weeds  and  spores  of  fungi 
in  the  soil  are  of  sufficient  benefit  to  pay  the  cost  of  sterilization,  providing  the 
soil  is  not  damaged  nor  its  usefulness  impaired  by  the  high  heating.  It  is 

58 


Soils 


well  known  that  where  soil  is  baked  over  a  fire,  or  exposed  to  great  heat,  it 
becomes  to  a  certain  extent  dead,  and  not  as  useful  for  plant  growth  as  virgin 
soil.  It  has  been  claimed  by  some  that  exposing  the  soils  to  high  temperature 
destroys  the  nitrifying  bacteria  which  are  said  to  be  necessary  to  plant  growth. 
It  is  possible  that  this  may  be  true  where  temperatures  are  carried  too  high  or 
the  soil  remains  superheated  for  too  long  a  period.  If  the  temperature  is 


Soil  Sterilizer  in  operation — Sterilizing  soil  on  the  bench 


raised  not  higher  than  195  to  212  degrees,  and  if  the  steam  is  not  carried 
in  the  soil  for  more  than  twenty  to  thirty  minutes,  it  may  be  possible  that 
the  beneficial  bacteria  will  not  be  destroyed;  whereas,  if  this  temperature 
should  be  carried  for  a  number  of  hours  these  bacteria  might  suffer.  Possibly 
a  perceptible  loss  of  nitrogen  may  occur  from  evaporation  where  a  high  degree 
of  heat  is  maintained  for  an  extended  period. 

59 


Soils 

As  soon  as  dry  enough,  the  soil  should  be  turned  over  and  thoroughly 
shaken  out.  The  second  or  third  day  after  the  soil  has  been  sterilized  it 
should  again  be  turned  over  and  thoroughly  shaken,  in  order  to  break  up  any 
lumps  that  may  have  been  formed  in  the  process  of  steaming.  It  should 
then  stand  from  one  to  two  days,  or  until  it  contains  only  the  proper  degree  of 
moisture  necessary  for  the  plant  to  begin  growth.  The  treatment  after  this 
will  be  no  different  from  that  given  to  unsterilized  soil. 

Thomas  Hogg,  in  ending  his  treatise  upon  the  carnation,  pays  tribute  to 
the  necessity  for  good  culture  and  rich,  well-prepared  soil,  in  the  following : 

"  Notice  Extraordinary. 

"N.on  Semper  idem  floribus  est  honos  vernis. — Horace. 

"To  the  ladies  and  gentlemen  who  take  pleasure  in  the  flower  garden,  this  officious 
intimation  is  hereby  given,  in  the  name  and  in  the  behalf  of  all  the  florists  in  Great 
Britain: 

"That  as  much  as  the  poor,  sickly,  half-starved,  ragged,  disconsolate  man  differs 
from  the  same  man  when  prosperous,  well  fed,  well  clothed,  in  health,  cheerful  and 
at  his  ease,  so  much  does  the  healthy,  well-cultivated  flower  differ  from  the  same  flower 
when  neglected,  and  planted  in  barren  and  improper  soil.  In  vain  will  the  same  man 
exclaim,  'I  am  he,  I  am  the  man ;'  no  one  will  believe  him,  scarce  anyone  will  know 
him — he  is  the  world's  scorn. 

"So  it  is  often  the  case  with  a  flower,  when  in  the  hands  of  a  florist,  and  again 
when  in  the  care  of  some  gentleman's  or  lady's  bungling  gardener — the  flower  is  no 
longer  acknowledged  to  be  the  same  flower ;  thus  reproach  is  very  often  unmeritedly 
incurred  by  the  florist. 

"By  way  of  recapitulation,  then,  be  it  added,  that  one-third  fresh  loam  or  maiden 
earth,  two-thirds  frame  dung,  with  one-sixth  of  the  whole,  dried  road  grit  or  sand,  put 
together  in  the  autumn,  and  frequently  turned  in  the  winter,  will  form  a  compost  in 
which  almost  any  plant  will  thrive  in  the  spring  and  summer  following;  and  whoever 
manages  to  keep  his  plants  in  health,  and  in  a  vigorous  state  of  growth,  will  never  fail 
to  have  a  generous  bloom. — Valeteo." 


60 


CHAPTER  V 

Manures  and  Fertilizers 

THERE  is  no  more  important  question  to  the  carnation  grower  than  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  with  which  he  has  to  operate.  It  is  not  only  neces- 
sary that  he  shall  be  able  to  grow  carnations,  but  he  must  be  able  to 
produce  them  at  a  substantial,  paying  profit.  He  must  not  only  produce 
flowers  that  will  sell  for  more  than  their  cost  in  the  way  of  labor,  manures, 
interest  on  capital  invested,  and  cost  of  keeping  his  plant  in  repair,  but  he 
must  produce  them  at  a  profit  sufficient  to  cover  the  reduction  in  the  future 
fertility  of  his  soil,  or  the  cost  of  replenishing  it.  If  he  can  produce  crops  and 
sell  them  at  a  profitable  margin,  and  at  the  same  time  maintain  and  increase 
the  productiveness  of  his  soil,  he  will  have  become  a  successful  business  florist. 
In  order  to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  acquire,  through  years  of  experience, 
a  definite  working  knowledge  of  the  principles  involved  in  plant  production. 
He  must  not  only  be  able  to  propagate  and  grow  carnation  plants,  harvest  and 
sell  his  flowers  at  a  profit,  but  also  have  a  more  or  less  definite  knowledge 
of  the  use  of  manures  and  commercial  fertilizers,  and  of  what  constitutes  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  as  well  as  a  practical  experience  that  will  enable  him  to 
judge  of  the  capacity  of  his  soils  and  to  maintain  and  increase  their  fer- 
tility. 

By  fertility  is  meant  the  total  content  of  plant  food  elements  in  the  soil 
that  are  useable  or  available  for  plant  growth.  It  must  contain  those  ele- 
ments found  in  the  plant,  for  it  is  axiomatic  that  you  can  take  nothing  from 
the  soil  which  it  does  not  contain.  Experiments  show  that  plants  take  up  a 
number  of  chemical  elements  which  seem  to  be  required  for  their  normal 
growth  and  development.  Those  most  necessary  to  plant  growth  are  stated 
as  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime ;  but  magnesium,  sulphur, 
sodium,  iron,  silicon  and  chlorine  are  also  taken  into  the  plant  system  in 
greater  or  less  quantities.  Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime  are 
more  rapidly  exhausted  from  soils,  because  plants  contain  larger  amounts  of 
these  elements  than  of  the  others  above  mentioned. 

In  order  to  secure  the  best  results  in  growing  any  plant,  it  is  evident  that 
soils  must  contain  the  maximum  amount  of  those  particular  elements  which 

61 


Manures  and   Fertilizers 

the  plant  removes  when  the  maximum  crops  are  grown,  as  the  removal  of  the 
crops  exhausts  the  particular  elements  required  by  the  plant,  and  eventually 
reduces  the  soil  fertility  to  a  point  so  low  that  profitable  crops  cannot  be 
grown. 

The  productiveness  of  soils  is  also  largely  influenced  by  their  physical 
character.  Soils  which  resist  the  penetration  of  air  and  water  are  less 
fertile  than  those  that  are  soft  and  friable  and  freely  permit  the  absorption  of 
water  and  atmospheric  action ;  also,  soils  that  are  so  fine  and  free  from 
vegetable  matter  as  to  become  compacted,  hardened  and  impervious  to  heat, 
water  and  air,  are  less  desirable  than  those  of  a  coarser  texture,  as  the  latter 
will  form  an  open,  mellow  soil  in  which  the  active  resolvent  agencies  will 
freely  work. 

The  practical  fertility  of  soil  is  measured  by  the  amount  of  available 
or  soluble  plant  food  elements  which  it  contains.  In  America  most  of 
our  agricultural  soils  contain  essential  plant  elements  in  large  amounts,  and 
this  natural  richness  is  supplemented  by  climatic  conditions  that  tend  to  the 
rapid  conversion  of  these  elements  into  crops ;  nevertheless,  it  is  true  that 
continuous  profitable  crops  of  any  nature  cannot  be  grown  without  the  use  of 
manures,  or  of  commercial  fertilizers,  as  under  such  continuous  cropping,  if 
the  plant  elements  removed  are  not  replaced,  the  soils  eventually  become 
exhausted  of  their  available  plant  constituents.  Therefore,  the  future  success 
of  the  florist  will  largely  depend  upon  how  well  he  understands  the  application 
of  the  principles  involved  in  the  preservation  and  use  of  the  fertile  constituents 
contained  in  his  soils,  as  well  as  the  practical  use  of  the  elements  of  fertility 
which  he  is  able  to  purchase. 

As  a  guide  to  progressive  florists,  I  would  recommend  the  work,  en- 
titled "Fertilizers,"  by  Edward  B.  Voorhees,  which  may  be  obtained  from  The 
Macmillan  Company  of  New  York.  The  book  named  covers  the  subject  of 
artificial  fertilizers  completely,  and  it  can  be  studied  by  every  commercial 
florist  to  his  great  profit.  The  following  quotation  from  this  work  may  be  of 
interest  to  the  observant  florist  as  pointing  out  a  possible  cause  of  the  crop 
failures  of  which  we  often  hear : 

"What  Becomes  of  Our  Fertility? 

"Since  fertility  is  dependent  upon  so  many  conditions,  or,  in  other  words,  since  the 
essential  elements  of  fertility  are  dependent  upon  their  utility,  and  since,  in  this  sense, 
fertility  is  largely  determined  by  natural  conditions,  it  is  pertinent  to  inquire,  first, 
whether  under  our  present  systems  of  management,  or  mismanagement,  of  the  land,  it 
is  suffering  any  natural  loss  of  fertility.  As  already  pointed  out,  the  most  important 
function  of  fertility  is  to  furnish  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  and  since  the 

62 


Manures  and   Fertilizers 

content  of  these  in  our  soil,  together  with  the  knowledge  we  have  as  to  their  use, 
measures,  in  a  sense,  our  prosperity  as  an  agricultural  people,  the  possibilities  of  losing 
them  from  the  soil  is  a  matter  of  national  concern,  and  is  of  vital  interest  to  individual 
farmers,  who,  in  the  aggregate,  make  up  that  part  of  the  nation  directly  affected  by  the 
results  of  such  loss.  It  would,  perhaps,  be  possible,  by  a  careful  chemical  survey  of  our 
soils,  to  determine  both  the  actual  and  potential  fertility  of  our  entire  country,  and  this 
knowledge,  together  with  an  accurate  measure  of  the  intelligence  exercised  in  its  use, 
would  enable  a  prediction  as  to  our  future  development,  if  present  methods  were  con- 
tinued. That  is,  whether  our  land  would  become  barren  and  worthless,  as  has  been 
the  case  in  many  older  countries  which  at  one  time  were  quite  as  productive,  or  whether 
it  would  constantly  increase  in  productiveness,  even  with  continuous  and  profitable 
cropping." 

As  before  stated,  the  principal  elements  necessary  for  plant  growth  are 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Nitrogen,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  most  essential  of  the  elements  of  plant  food,  is  the  most  volatile  of 
all  these  elements,  the  easiest  lost  and  the  most  expensive  to  replace.  It  is 
not  only  taken  up  and  removed  from  the  soil  by  the  crop,  but  where  soils  are 
allowed  to  remain  uncropped,  a  large  percentage  of  the  nitrogen  contained 
therein  is  lost  by  drainage ;  this  loss,  however,  is  practically  prevented  in 
soils  which  are  continuously  cropped.  There  is  also  a  very  large  loss  by 
evaporation,  especially  where  certain  classes  of  crops  are  grown  upon  lands 
that  are  especially  rich  in  nitrogen.  Experiments  have  shown  that  upon  the 
very  rich  prairie  lands  of  the  West,  where  continuous  crops  of  wheat  are 
grown,  the  natural  loss  of  nitrogen  by  evaporation  is  much  greater  than  the 
quantity  removed  by  the  crop,  the  average  crop  of  wheat  removing  about 
241/2  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre,  while  146  pounds  per  acre  are  lost  by 
evaporation.  On  the  contrary,  where  crops  were  grown  in  rotation  with 
clover  or  some  other  nitrogenous-gathering  plant,  the  gain  in  nitrogen  ex- 
ceeded the  amount  carried  away  by  the  crop,  and  under  such  culture,  as  there 
was  no  loss  by  drainage,  the  land  so  cropped  gradually  increased  its  store  of 
nitrogen  and  its  fertility  was  not  impaired. 

The  late  Professor  Kedzie,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Michigan, 
strongly  recommended  the  use  of  nitrogenous  gathering  plants  for  the  purpose 
of  permanently  maintaining  the  fertility  of  land.  In  the  production  of  crops, 
he  also  recommended  abundant  applications  of  nitrogenous  manures  until  the 
growth  of  the  plant  is  perfected,  at  which  period  liberal  applications  of 
super-phosphate  or  phosphoric  acid  result  in  the  production  of  abundant 
crops.  He  gave  as  an  example  a  pear  orchard  which  had  made  a  remarkable 
growth  of  foliage  and  tree  for  a  number  of  years,  but  had  borne  no  fruit.  A 
liberal  application  of  super-phosphate  had  produced  an  enormous  crop  of 
fruit,  and  this  same  orchard  was  maintained  in  profitable  productive  con- 

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Manures  and  Fertilizers 

dition  for  a  long  period  by  the  alternate  application  of  nitrogenous  manures 
and  super-phosphate.  The  principal  sources  of  nitrogen,  aside  from  natural 
manures,  such  as  horse,  cow  and  sheep  manures,  which  are  frequently  avail- 
able to  florists  contiguous  to  large  cities  where  numbers  of  domestic  animals 
are  stabled,  are  as  follows : 

First.  Growing  and  ploughing  under  nitrogenous  gathering  crops,  such  as  the 
various  clovers,  cow  peas  and  soy  beans. 

Second.  Nitrate  of  soda,  which  contains  from  15  to  i6V&  per  cent,  of  pure  nitrogen 
and  may  be  purchased  from  dealers  in  fertilizing  materials  at  prices  ranging  from  $45.00 
to  $55.00  per  ton. 

Third.  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  contains  20  to  21  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and 
costs  from  $65.00  to  $75.00  per  ton.  This  is  the  richest  of  all  of  the  ammonia  compounds, 
and  when  used  with  ground  dried  blood  is  particularly  efficacious  where  a  manure  espe- 
cially rich  in  nitrogen  is  desired. 

Fourth.  One  of  the  best  of  the  chemical  nitrogen  compounds  is  nitrate  of  potash, 
which  contains  20  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  40  to  42  per  cent,  of  potash,  and  costs  from 
$4.65  to  $6.00  per  one  hundred  pounds. 

Fifth.  Ground  dried  blood,  containing  12  to  17  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  from 
a  trace  to  4  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  costing  $37.00  to  $50.00  per  ton,  is  also  espe- 
cially valuable  for  florists'  use. 

Sixth.  Peruvian  guano,  costing  $45.00  to  $55.00  per  ton,  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen 
and  is  valuable  for  use  in  making  liquid  manures. 

Seventh.  Ground  sheep  manure,  also  rich  in  available  nitrogen,  and  costing  from 
$12.00  to  $16.00  per  ton,  is  particularly  .valuable  for  use  as  a  liquid  fertilizer,  as  well 
as  for  top  dressing  growing  plants  upon  benches,  or  sowing  in  the  drills  where  young 
plants  are  planted  in  the  field. 

Eighth.  Tankage,  which  contains  from  4%  to  10  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  10  to  45 
per  cent,  of  bone  phosphate,  costing  from  $25.00  to  $35.00  per  ton,  is  also  an  excellent 
fertilizing  material. 

Phosphoric  Acid 

The  next  most  essential  element  for  plant  growth  is  phosphoric  acid, 
which  is  contained  in  large  quantities  in  most  soils,  but  which  may  generally 
be  applied  to  advantage  in  connection  with  potash  and  nitrogen.  One  of  the 
principal  sources  from  which  phosphoric  acid  is  derived  is  raw  ground  bone, 
containing  20  to  22  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid  and  about  4  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen.  Steamed  or  boiled  bone,  which  contains  more  phosphoric 
acid  and  less  nitrogen  than  raw  bone,  is  also  more  variable  in  composition, 
depending  upon  the  degree  of  steaming  to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  The 
refuse  bone  from  glue  factories,  where  the  chief  object  is  to  extract  the  nitro- 
genous matter  from  the  bone,  contains  from  28  to  30  per  cent,  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  but  a  trace  of  nitrogen. 

Where  bone  is  steamed  at  a  high  pressure,  a  favorable  effect  upon  the 

64 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 

character  of  the  bone  is  secured,  as  the  process  makes  the  bone  soft  and 
crumbly,  and  reduces  it  to  a  finer  state  of  division  than  is  usually  accom- 
plished by  grinding".  As  the  bone  is  also  practically  free  from  fat,  it  is  more 
useful  as  a  source  of  phosphoric  acid  than  the  ground  raw  bone.  Ground  and 
steamed  bones  are  sold  at  $23.00  to  $27.00  per  ton. 

Bone  black,  or  animal  charcoal,  after  having  been  used  in  the  sugar  re- 
fineries, consists  chiefly  of  vegetable  matter  and  moisture.  It  is  variable  in 
composition,  containing  from  32  to  36  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  and  a 
small  amount  of  nitrogen.  It  decays  slowly  in  the  soil,  and  its  action  extends 
over  a  considerable  period.  Bone  black  is  sold  at  $18.00  to  $20.00  per  ton. 

Phosphoric  acid,  applied  in  the  form  of  raw  or  steamed  bone,  gives  up  its 
nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  gradually,  and  its  chemical  and  physical  char- 
acteristics are  such  that  during  the  growing  season  it  forms  no  compounds  in 
the  soil  more  insoluble  than  itself.  Bone  is  the  only  phosphatic  material  that 
is  now  used  without  further  treatment  than  simply  grinding. 

The  commercial  acid  phosphate,  sometimes  known  as  super-phosphate  or 
dissolved  Carolina  and  Florida  rock,  contains  from  14  to  15  per  cent,  of  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid.  It  costs  from  $12.00  to  $14.00  per  ton,  and  is  probably 
the  cheapest  source  of  phosphoric  acid  that  we  have. 

The  rock  sulphates  existing  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida,  sometimes 
called  Charleston  Phosphate  or  Florida  Phosphate,  contain  from  18  to  as 
high  as  40  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  which  in  its  native  form  is  largely- 
insoluble,  and  must  be  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  before  the  phosphoric  acid 
is  made  available.  When  so  treated  it  is  nearly  as  valuable  as  the  various 
bone  phosphates  above  mentioned,  and  is  sold  at  $12.00  to  $14.00  per  ton. 

Potash 

The  third  important  constituent  of  plant  fertilizers,  potash,  is  considered 
of  less  relative  importance  to  plant  growth  than  either  nitrogen  or  phosphoric 
acid,  as  all  good  soils  are,  naturally,  much  richer  in  potash,  and  a  less  amount 
is  removed  from  the  soil  in  plant  growth  than  of  either  nitrogen  or  phos- 
phoric acid.  It  is  deemed,  however,  a  necessary  fertilizer  constituent,  and 
essential  for  use  upon  light  sandy  soils,  or  for  peaty  meadow  lands.  It  is 
rated  as  particularly  valuable  in  the  building  up  of  worn-out  soils,  as  it  is 
thought  to  contribute  largely  to  the  growth  of  nitrogenous  gathering  plants. 
The  various  sources  of  potash  are  as  follows : 

First.  Sulphate  of  potash,  which  contains  48  to  53  per  cent,  of  available  potash 
and  is  probably  the  cheapest  form  in  which  potash  can  be  secured.  It  can  be  purchased 
from  dealers  in  fertilizing  materials,  at  prices  ranging  from  $44.00  to  $48.00  per  ton. 

65 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 

Second.  Muriate  of  potash  contains  from  50  to  55  per  cent,  of  available  potash, 
and  may  be  purchased  at  prices  ranging  from  $40.00  to  $44.00  per  ton. 

Third.  Nitrate  of  potash,  containing  40  to  42  per  cent,  of  potash  and  20  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  fertilizer  constituents  known.  It  is  somewhat 
expensive,  costing  from  $4.65  to  $6.00  per  100  pounds,  but,  whenever  it  can  be  secured, 
it  may  be  profitably  used. 

Fourth.  Kainit,  containing  about  i2l/2  per  cent,  of  potash,  may  be  purchased  at 
prices  ranging  from  $10.50  to  $12.00  per  ton.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  least  valuable 
of  the  various  potash  compounds  offered,  as  it  is  a  crude  compound  and  much  of  the 
potash  contained  therein  is  not  available. 

Fifth.  Another  source  of  potash  is  wood  ashes,  which  contain  from  16  to  40  per 
cent,  of  available  potash,  the  amounts  varying  according  to  the  character  of  the  woods 
consumed  in  making  the  ashes,  as  well  as  the  manner  in  which  the  ashes  have  been 
gathered  and  preserved.  Ashes  from  hard  woods  such  as  maple,  beech,  hickory  and 
oak,  are  richer  in  potash  than  those  made  from  the  softer  woods,  such  as  pine,  hemlock, 
spruce,  poplar,  etc.  Ashes  that  have  been  carefully  gathered  and  stored  in  a  dry  place, 
where  they  are  not  exposed  to  leaching  rains,  are  much  more  valuable  than  those  not 
carefully  protected,  as  they  possess  a  much  larger  percentage  of  available  potash. 
Leached  ashes  are  of  comparatively  little  value,  as  the  greater  proportion  of  the  potash 
has  been  taken  away.  Wood  ashes  contain  potash  in  one  of  its  best  forms,  and  also 
contain  considerable  quantities  of  lime  and  a  small  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid.  As 
usually  offered  for  sale,  they  contain  a  considerable  portion  of  moisture  and  dirt.  The 
average  analysis  of  commercial  wood  ashes  shows  them  to  contain  less  than  six  per 
cent,  of  potash  and  two  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  some  32  per  cent,  of  lime, 
while  the  leached  wood  ashes  contain  a  little  over  one  per  cent,  of  potash,  about  \y2 
per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  and  about  25  per  cent,  of  lime.  Where  unleached  ashes 
made  from  good  hard  woods  can  be  obtained,  they  will  prove  one  of  the  best  sources 
of  potash,  as  the  potash  contained  in  them  is  in  a  fine  state  of  division  and  immediately 
available. 

Ashes  are  said  to  have  a  favorable  physical  effect  upon  most  soils,  espe- 
cially upon  those  that  are  heavy.  In  purchasing  ashes,  they  should  always 
be  bought  subject  to  analysis,  and  the  price  should  be  determined  by  the  actual 
plant  constituent  contained,  and  it  should  not  be  greater  than  that  at  which 
the  same  constituents  can  be  purchased  in  other  available  forms. 

In  carnation  growing,  the  most  profitable  use  that  can  be  made  of  ashes 
is  to  sow  them  liberally  upon  sodded  ground  intended  for  future  use  as  car- 
nation soil.  The  ashes  should  be  spread  upon  the  ground  in  the  fall  of  the 
year.  During  the  winter  season  they  will  be  dissolved  and  leached  into 
the  soil. 

Liquid  Manures 

The  most  useful  form  in  which  chemical  manures  can  be  employed  by  the 
carnation  grower  is  by  watering  his  growing  plants  with  liquid  fertilizers. 

66 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 

Various  formulae  have  been  from  time  to  time  furnished  by  different  experi- 
menters, as  well  as  by  the  Experiment  Stations.  The  following  formulae 
have  all  been  used  by  the  writer,  with  success,  the  results  thus  far  with  any 
of  the  different  formulae  not  being  sufficiently  striking  to  enable  him  to  select 
either  one  or  the  other  as  giving  positively  the  best  results : 

Formula  A :  250  pounds  super-phosphate,  75  pounds  nitrate  of  soda,  50 
pounds  sulphate  of  potash.  This  is  thoroughly  mixed,  ground  together,  and 
dissolved  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  to  one  gallon  of  water,  and 
applied  to  the  soil  about  once  in  two  weeks  after  the  plants  have  become  well 
established  and  are  growing  rapidly. 

Formula  B:  This  formula  has  been  used  by  one  of  our  best  chrysanthe- 
mum growers  for  a  number  of  years,  with  great  success :  50  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  30  pounds  nitrate  of  potash,  20  pounds  phosphate  of  am- 
monia. This  mixture  is  dissolved  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  twelve  gallons 
of  water,  and  applied  twice  each  week  after  the  plants  are  growing  rapidly 
until  growth  is  completed ;  then  a  liberal  dose  of  super-phosphate  is  given 
to  bring  the  plants  into  bloom.  The  foregoing  formula  makes  a  fertilizer 
which  is  completely  soluble  in  water,  and  is  probably  one  of  the  best. 

Formula  C:  250  pounds  super-phosphate,  30  pounds  nitrate  of  potash, 
20  pounds  phosphate  of  ammonia,  50  pounds  nitrate  of  soda.  This  makes 
a  formula  particularly  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  is  used  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce 
to  twelve  gallons  of  water  when  applied  weekly,  or  one  ounce  to  two  gallons 
of  water  when  applied  every  two  weeks. 

Formula  D:  250  pounds  super-phosphate,  100  pounds  ground  dried 
blood,  50  pounds  sulphate  of  potash.  Used  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  one 
gallon  of  water,  and  applied  once  in  two  weeks,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to 
twelve  gallons  of  water  and  applied  once  or  twice  weekly. 

Formula  E:  300  pounds  bone  black,  50  pounds  sulphate  of  potash,  75 
pounds  nitrate  of  soda.  Applied  in  a  similar  manner  as  set  forth  in  For- 
mula D. 

For  exhausted  soils  the  following  formula  ha.c  been  used  with  consider- 
able success :  500  pounds  super-phosphate,  75  pounds  sulphate  of  potash,  300 
pounds  ground  sheep  manure.  This  is  sown  in  the  drills  at  the  rate  of  300 
to  500  pounds  per  acre,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil,  and  is  thor- 
oughly'stirred  in  and  incorporated  with  the  soil  before  the  drills  are  covered 
in  and  the  ridges  made  upon  which  the  young  carnation  plants  are  set. 

Mr.  William  Stuart,  of  the  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
gives  the  following-  general  formula,  which  he  recommends  for  use  in  rose 

67 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 

growing:  Super-phosphate  containing  14  to  15  per  cent,  of  available  phos- 
phoric acid,  130  pounds;  sulphate  of  ammonia,  13  pounds;  nitrate  of  soda, 
31  pounds;  sulphate  of  potash,  26  pounds.  This  is  dissolved  at  the  rate  of 
one  ounce  to  one  gallon  of  water,  and  applied  once  each  week  at  the  rate  of 
two  quarts  per  square  yard,  for  three  or  four  weeks,  until  the  plants  have 
taken  on  a  heavy  growth,  and  then  the  quantity  and  time  of  application  are 
regulated  according  to  the  needs  of  the  plants. 

It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  principle,  that  in  applications  of  liquid  chem- 
ical manures  the  plant  should  have  become  well  established  before  the  fer- 
tilizers are  applied.  The  first  application  should  be  rather  weak,  and  others 
made  at  considerable  intervals  apart,  until  the  plants  have  shown,  by  active 
growth,  that  they  are  assimilating  the  fertilizers,  at  which  time  the  applica- 
tions may  be  more  frequent. 

So  far  as  our  experiments  have  extended,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  to 
get  the  best  practical  results  from  the  use  of  chemical  fertilizers,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  considerable  vegetable  fiber  incorporated  with  the  soil.  In 
dense  mineral  soils,  devoid  of  vegetable  fiber,  the  application  of  chemical 
fertilizers  should  be  made  with  extreme  caution,  as  the  results  obtained  in 
such  soils  will  probably  be  entirely  different  from  those  obtained  in  soils 
rich  in  vegetable  fiber,  under  the  same  treatment.  In  applying  all  classes  of 
liquid  fertilizers,  the  condition  of  the  soil  must  be  carefully  observed,  and 
whenever  an  acid  condition  becomes  apparent,  the  application  of  the  liquid 
manures  should  be  suspended  and  the  acidity  corrected  by  a  top  dressing  of 
lime,  or  by  a  liberal  application  of  lime  water. 

In  using  liquid  fertilizers  care  must  be  taken  not  to  overfeed  the  plants, 
as  fatal  results  may  be  caused  thereby.  A  curious  yet  serious  result  from 
overfeeding  with  chemical  fertilizers  is  described  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
American  Carnation  Society  for  1896,  by  Prof.  J.  C.  Arthur: 

"A  very  interesting  abnormal  development  of  the  flowers  of  the  Carna- 
tion was  recently  brought  to  my  attention  by  Mr.  Fred.  Dorner,  who  also 
kindly  furnished  me  material  for  a  preliminary  study.  The  variation  from 
normal  habit  first  manifests  itself  by  a  failure  of  the  full  grown  buds  to  ex- 
pand into  open  flowers.  The  enlargement  of  the  petals  continues  as  usual, 
but  they  do  not  separate  from  one  another.  When  the  bud  is  forcibly  pulled 
open,  it  is  found  that  the  petals  have  adhered  by  their  surfaces  so  firmly 
that  they  are  torn,  like  pieces  of  paper  pasted  together  that  split  before  the 
mucilage  will  give  way.  This  splitting  of  the  petals  is  easily  seen,  as  the 
color,  which  gives  them  brilliancy,  is  wholly  in  the  surface  layer  of  cells, 
while  the  tissue  within  is  quite  colorless  or  white,  and  clearly  evident  when 
exposed. 

68 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 


''It  is  easy  to  convince  one's  self  that  the  adhesion  of  the  petals  is  not  due 
to  the  presence  of  a  sticky  substance,  for  any  length  of  soaking  in  water  or 
alcohol  does  not  cause  them  to  separate  any  more  easily.  It  is  evident,  fur- 
thermore, that  the  only  surfaces  that  adhere  are  on  the  colored,  velvety  parts 
of  the  petals,  the  colorless  bases  or  claws  being  normally  free. 

"In  the  accompanying  photographs  a  normal  and  an  abnormal  bud  of 
Wm.  Scott  carnation  is  shown.  The  latter  is  several  days  older,  somewhat 
lighter  in  color,  and  has  grown  to  the  utmost  size;  a  normal  bud  would 


NORMAL 


ABNORMAL 


NORMALS 


have  expanded  before  the  petals  had  attained  the  same  length.  The  same 
buds  were  photographed  after  cutting  off  the  upper  half.  In  the  normal  bud 
the  portion  cut  off  at  once  dropped  apart,  but  in  the  abnormal  bud  it  re- 
tained its  form  equally  well  with  the  basal  half." 

Natural  Manures 

Wherever  natural  manures,  such  as  horse,  cow  or  sheep  manure,  can  be 
obtained  at  reasonable  prices,  they  are  unquestionably  the  safest  for  ordinary 

69 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 

florists'  purposes,  as  they  may  be  used  by  persons  having  a  much  less  knowl- 
edge of  the  action  of  fertilizers  than  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  fertilizer  chem- 
icals, without  danger  of  serious  adverse  results.  Ordinary  barnyard  or  stable 
manure  should  be  well  composted  before  being  used,  and  in  this  connection 
there  is  an  old  work  published  by  the  Orange  Judd  Company,  entitled  "The 
Bommer  Method  of  Making  Manure,"  which  can  be  profitably  studied  by 
every  florist.  Briefly  stated,  this  method  consists  of  stacking  the  manure  in  a 
square  heap  upon  a  grated  platform  placed  over  a  cement-lined  excavation, 
the  drainage  from  this  heap  being  carried  to  a  vat  or  cistern.  This  heap 
is  made  under  cover,  and  the  stable  cleanings  are  thrown  upon  it  each  day, 
as  taken  from  the  stable.  A  pump  is  placed  in  the  vat,  and  the  drainage 
from  the  heap  is  pumped  back  upon  it  at  intervals  and  allowed  to  percolate 
through  and  drain  off  again.  All  of  the  drainage  from  the  stable  is  also  car- 
ried into  this  vat,  and  is  supplemented  by  the  addition  of  water  whenever 
the  liquid  drained  from  the  heap  is  not  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  wetting 
it  down  well.  By  this  method  stable  manures  are  composted  and  rendered 
fit  for  use  in  a  very  short  time,  and  with  comparatively  little  loss  of  any  of 
the  fertilizer  constituents,  as  by  packing  the  manure  firmly  in  the  heap  and 
wetting  it  thoroughly  at  stated  intervals  all  danger  of  heating  or  firing  is 
obviated,  and  the  manure  is  decomposed  with  almost  no  loss  of  nitrogen. 

In  making  such  a  manure  heap  all  the  refuse  found  about  a  greenhouse, 
such  as  old  plants,  dust,  leaves,  sods,  muck,  straw,  grass,  weeds,  plaster,  marl, 
as  well  as  scraps  from  the  dwelling  house,  may  be  put  into  it  and  decomposed 
together.  The  author  has  such  a  heap,  which  has  been  in  operation  for 
several  years  in  connection  with  his  stables,  and  he  has  found  that  the  manure 
thus  produced  is  much  stronger  and  richer  than  anything  he  is  able  to  pur- 
chase. 


70 


CHAPTER  VI 

Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

OF  the   two  methods  whereby   young  stocks  of  carnations   may  be 
increased,  propagation  by  cuttings,  or  pippings,  is  almost  exclusively 
used  by  the  American  grower.    With  the  English  carnation  grower, 
in  propagating  the  English  varieties,  layering  is  largely  practiced ;  but  owing 
to  the  difference  in  climate  and  the  slowness   with  which   stock   can  be 
increased,  that  method  has  not  been  found  a  practical  one  in  America. 

Like  Produces  Like 

In  the  reproduction  of  any  species  of  plant  by  the  use  of  cuttings,  layers, 
or  grafts,  it  may  be  stated  as  an  axiom  that,  with  but  very  rare  exceptions, 
the  progeny  resulting  from  such  propagation  will  be  practical  reproductions 
of  the  parent  from  which  the  cutting,  layer,  or  scion  is  taken.  The  tendency 
to  perpetuate  the  dominant  characteristics  of  the  parent  plant  is  strongly 
maintained  through  many  generations,  subject  only  to  such  modifications 
as  may  occur  from  environment  and  treatment. 

Thus,  cuttings  from  a  carnation  plant  giving  red  blossoms  also  bear 
red  flowers ;  cuttings  from  a  vigorous  plant  make  vigorous  young  plants,  and 
vice  versa ;  a  graft,  or  cutting,  from  a  plant  having  variegated  foliage  pro- 
duces plants  with  foliage  also  variegated. 

While  the  propagation  of  carnations  by  rooting  cuttings  is  very  simple, 
it  requires  not  only  judgment  in  the  selection  of  healthy  stock  for  propagat- 
ing purposes,  but  also  in  the  selection  of  strong  shoots  from  the  most  vigor- 
ous growth  of  the  plant,  and  the  importance  of  such  judicious  selection  should 
not  be  underestimated.  Young  plants  grown  from  any  stock  will  partake 
largely  of  the  characteristics  of  the  parent  plant  and  of  its  condition  at  the 
time  the  cuttings  were  taken.  If  we  select  propagating  wood  from  sickly 
plants  the  constitutions  of  which  are  in  a  debilitated  condition,  the  tendency 
toward  ill-health  will  be  to  some  extent  perpetuated  in  the  young  stock,  and 
vice  versa ;  if  the  stock  is  taken  from  healthy,  vigorous  growing  plants  at  the 
time  they  are  in  the  best  condition,  the  tendency  in  the  young  stock  will  be 
largely  toward  vigorous,  healthy  growth. 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

This  tendency  of  like  to  produce  like  is  proved  by  the  selection  of  propa- 
gating wood  in  the  case  of  shoots  that  have  sported.  Cuttings  taken  from 
the  branch  which  shows  the  variation  from  the  type  will  in  most  instances 
produce  a  percentage  of  plants  in  which  such  variation  remains,  and  fre- 
quent selection  of  cuttings  from  these  plants  will  finally  fix  the  variation, 
although  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  there  will  be  occasional  rever- 
sions to  the  original  type.  That  is  to  say,  if  a  variegated-flowered  carnation 


A — Desirable  cuttings  as  taken  from  the  sand — Note  strong  root  systems 

B — Showing  how  inferior  cuttings  develop  weak  root  systems 

C — Desirable  cuttings  taken  from  soil  after  they  have  become  established 


throws  a  shoot  bearing  a  white  bloom,  a  certain  percentage  of  the  cuttings 
taken  from  this  shoot  will  produce  white  blooms,  but  probably  some  will  give 
variegated  flowers.  If  the  propagation  is  continued  a  greater  proportion  of 
the  plants  propagated  from  the  one  producing  the  white  flower  will  continue 
to  throw  white  flowers,  although  now  and  then  a  plant,  or  even  a  portion  of  a 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

plant,  will  produce  a  variegated  flower.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  progeny  of  the  plant  which  reproduced  the  variegated  flower  is 
continued,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  young  stock  will  produce  variegated 
flowers,  but  now  and  then  one  will  give  a  white  flower.  Thus,  sports  may 
become  fixed  by  a  constant  selection  of  cuttings  from  parents  that  show  the 
strongest  tendency  to  maintain  the  variation. 

This  is  also  again  proved  in  the  case  of  variations  in  branches  which 
produce  an  enormous  quantity  of  foliage  and  no  flowers.  Cuttings  taken 
from  such  branches  will  eventually  produce  a  race  of  plants  that  will  not 
bloom  at  all.  The  author  has  grown  such  types  of  plants  two  years  without 
being  able  to  obtain  a  single  bloom  upon  them. 

In  propagating  from  a  diseased  plant  a  percentage  of  the  progeny  will 
also  show  the  diseased  tendency,  while  the  other  proportion  will  show  a  ten- 
dency to  resume  the  normal  or  healthy  growth.  This  healthy  condition  may 
be  perpetuated  by  selecting  the  strongest  plants  for  propagating  purposes  and 
continuing  such  selection.  Therefore,  in  the  perpetuation  of  a  stock  of  car- 
nations, such  stock  will  be  either  poor  or  good  according  to  the  care  used, 
not  only  in  the  selection  of  the  parent  plants  from  which  to  propagate,  but 
also  in  the  selection  of  the  best  and  most  vigorous  wood  from  such  plants. 
The  axiom,  "Like  produces  like,"  is  particularly  true  in  growing  carna- 
tion plants  from  cuttings,  and  in  propagating  the  golden  rule  should  be, 
"Strong  shoots  from  strong,  vigorous  plants  in  perfect  health."  Varieties 
of  carnations  may  be  split  up  into  several  distinct  strains  by  means  of  this 
selection ;  therefore,  the  grower  who  aims  to  produce  a  particular  type  of 
carnation  will  need  to  select  plants  for  propagating  purposes  that  approximate 
the  desired  type,  and  to  continue  such  selection,  and  if  he  would  keep  the 
strain  pure  he  must  avoid  propagating  from  plants  which  show  sensible 
variations  from  the  type  he  desires  to  maintain. 

In  the  early  history  of  propagating  carnations  in  America  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  propagating  wood  was  taken  from  near  the  base  of  the 
plant,  as  the  grower  was  anxious  to  preserve  the  wood  in  the  upper  portion 
of  the  plant  for  flowering  purposes.  In  those  days  carnation  flowers  were 
picked  with  short  stems  and  every  pip  or  bud  was  allowed  to  come  into 
bloom,  therefore  the  removal  of  any  portion  of  the  wood  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  plant  was  counted  by  the  grower  as  a  distinct  loss.  In  some  in- 
stances, where  propagation  was  followed  up  for  a  long  period  by  the  selec- 
tion of  these  base  cuttings,  varieties  finally  ceased  to  bloom  and  produced 
nothing  but  a  large  amount  of  grass.  With  the  advent  of  growing  long- 
stemmed  carnation  blooms  the  system  of  selecting  the  cuttings  was  changed, 

73 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

and  at  the  present  time  the  base  cuttings  are  scarcely  ever  used,  nor  are  the 
cuttings  which  grow  high  up  in  the  top  of  the  plant.  Those  pips  growing 
along  about  six  to  eight  inches  of  the  center  portion  of  the  blooming  stem 
are  considered  by  the  modern  grower  as  the  best  wood  for  propagating  pur- 
poses. (See  cut  showing  branches  of  carnation  used  which  are  marked  desir- 
able cuttings  and  inferior  cuttings.) 


Propagating    Wood 
A — Desirable  cuttings  B — Inferior  cuttings 

These  cuttings  are  taken  from  the  plant  when  in  the  proper  condition 
for  rooting.  This  varies  to  some  extent  in  different  varieties.  As  a  rule, 
it  may  be  said  that  cuttings  of  most  varieties  of  carnations  are  in  the  best 
condition  for  rooting  from  the  time  the  bloom  begins  to  show  color ;  that  is, 
when  it  begins  to  open  until  the  flower  is  ready  to  cut  for  market.  There 
are,  however,  certain  kinds  from  which  cuttings  taken  at  this  period  will  be 

74 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

too  hard,  but  such  sorts  are  very  rare.  There  are  also  other  varieties  upon 
which  the  cuttings  will  be  too  young  and  soft,  and  will  not  have  completed 
their  growth  nor  be  in  a  proper  condition  for  rooting  at  the  time  the  flowers 
are  cut.  With  this  latter  class,  in  order  to  get  the  proper  quantity  of  propa- 
gating wood,  it  will  be  necessary  to  sacrifice  the  flowers ;  that  is,  to  pinch 
out  the  buds  a  short  time  after  they  have  extended  beyond  the  foliage,  which 
cutting  back  of  the  plant  causes  the  side  shoots  to  break,  and  in  the  course 
of  time  a  large  supply  of  strong  propagating  wood  will  be  produced.  In 


Propagating  Bench  Shaded  with  Curtains 

fact,  a  number  of  the  varieties  of  carnations  introduced  in  later  years  have 
the  blooming  tendency  so  strongly  developed  that  the  only  practical  method 
of  obtaining  stock  in  quantity  is  to  cut  back  the  plants  and  rely  upon  the  new 
growth. 

The  cuttings  are  taken  from  the  stem  by  a  smart  pull  downward,  so  as 
to  tear  away  a  small  portion  of  the  bark  from  the  flower  stem  with  the  heel 

75 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

of  the  cutting.  When  taken  from  the  plant,  cuttings  must  not  be  allowed 
to  lie  around  and  wither,  but  should  be  put  in  the  sand  with  as  much  dis- 
patch as  is  practicable.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  take  off  the  cuttings  some 
time  before  placing  them  in  the  sand,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  where  large 
quantities  of  stock  are  propagated,  they  should  be  thoroughly  sprayed 
with  clear,  cold  water,  and  then  wrapped  in  wet  papers  and  placed  in  a  cool 


Short  Span  to  South  Propagating'  House 
Width,  17  feet;   height  to  ridge,  9  feet;    width  of  benches,  5  feet 

room  out  of  all  draughts  or  drying  winds,  and  where  they  will  not  heat.  This 
is  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  their  withering,  drying  out  or  heating.  If 
treated  in  this  manner  cuttings  may  stand  from  twelve  to  fourteen  hours 
without  serious  injury. 

76 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 
Propagating  House 

Almost  any  style  of  a  greenhouse  can  be  used  for  propagating  purposes. 
Many  propagators  prefer  one  with  a  northerly  aspect;  that  is,  one  erected 
on  the  north  side  of  a  building  or  wall.  Such  a  house  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage, but  in  the  dark  days  of  winter  we  have  found  that  cutting  bench  fungus 
will  develop  more  rapidly  in  a  house  so  placed,  where  it  is  absolutely  pro- 
tected from  all  rays  of  the  sun  upon  the  south  side,  than  in  a  lighter  house. 
The  type  of  house  in  which  we  have  had  the  best  success  is  known  as  a  short- 
span-to-the-south  house,  which  was  built  after  many  years  of  experimenting 
with  various  forms  of  propagating  houses. 

This  house  is  lightly  shaded  upon  the  south  side,  and  in  addition  to  this 
shade,  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  months  when  the  sun  is  excessively 
hot,  the  southerly  side  is  covered  with  an  additional  shading  of  cheese  cloth 
sash.  In  the  spring,  as  the  sun  gets  higher  and  its  rays  more  powerful,  the 
north  side  is  also  shaded,  during  bright  days,  with  a  similar  sash'  covered 
with  light  protecting  cloth.  When  shaded  in  this  manner  this  house  can 
be  kept  fully  as  cool  as  one  with  a  northerly  aspect,  and  it  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  permitting  us  to  remove  all  of  the  shade  excepting  the  light  coat 
of  paint  on  the  south  side  during  dark  days,  and  we  are  also  able  to  main- 
tain a  light,  airy  atmosphere  at  all  times.  This  has  been  found  to  be  a  great 
advantage,  and  since  using  this  style  of  house  less  trouble  with  all  sorts  of 
fungous  diseases  has  been  experienced. 

Construction  of  Propagating  Bench 

In  our  early  experience  in  propagating  carnations  we  used  any  ordinary 
greenhouse  bench,  cleaning  off  the  bench  thoroughly,  whitewashing  the  in- 
side of  it,  and  calking  the  cracks  with  sphagnum  moss  in  order  to  prevent 
the  sand  running  through  the  bottom.  From  three  to  six  inches  of  sand 
was  used,  and  upon  these  benches,  when  new,  very  good  results  were  gen- 
erally obtained.  But  in  a  few  years,  when  the  wood  became  affected  with 
decay,  trouble  with  cutting  bench  fungus  was  apt  to  set  in,  and  increase  as- 
the  benches  became  older  and  the  wood  more  decayed. 

At  the  present  time  we  are  using  two  forms  of  benches — the  sub-irriga- 
tion, the  construction  of  which  is  described  in  Chapter  XVI.,  and  the  brick 
bottom  bench.  While  we  have  found  the  sub-irrigation  bench,  on  the  whole,, 
the  better  type,  almost  as  good  a  bench  is  made  by  laying  porous  brick  upon 
the  flat  side  over  the  entire  bottom  of  the  bench,  as  shown  on  page  77. 
The  advantage  of  the  terra  cotta  or  brick  bottom  is  that  the  bricks  absorb- 

77 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

from  the  sand  any  surplus  moisture  and  in  turn  return  moisture  to  the  sand 
whenever  it  becomes  drier  than  the  brick. 

This  brick  or  terra  cotta  bottom  should  be  from  two  and  a  half  to  four 
inches  thick.  When  once  warmed  up  this  bottom  gives  off  its  heat  con- 
stantly and  evenly,  and  also  acts  as  a  shield  against  the  intense  heat  from 
the  heating  pipes,  preventing  the  baking  or  drying  out  of  the  sand  from 
beneath.  The  heating  pipes  should  be  some  distance  from  the  bottom  of 


Brick  Bottomed  Propagating'  Bench 

the  bench ;  not  nearer  than  eighteen  inches  at  any  point.  While  bottom  heat 
is  desirable,  it  should  be  generally  and  evenly  diffused  over  the  entire  bot- 
tom of  the  benches,  and  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  intense  at  any 
point.  A  very  even  bottom  heat  may  be  secured  by  tacking  a  curtain  of 
light  protecting  cloth  around  the  sides  of  the  benches,  allowing  it  to  hang 
down  to  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  ground.  This  protecting  cloth 
will  keep  the  atmosphere  under  the  benches  a  few  degrees  warmer  than  the 
air  of  the  greenhouse,  while  at  the  same  time  it  permits  of  the  gradual  diffu- 
sion of  heat  into  the  atmosphere  above  the  benches,  and  tends  to  keep  an 

78 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

even  temperature  throughout  the  house,  underneath  as  well  as  above  the 
benches.  The  temperature  above  the  benches  should  be  10  to  15  degrees 
cooler  than  that  under  the  benches. 

There  should  be  no  overhead  heating  pipes  in  the  propagating  house, 
but  the  arrangement  of  piping  should  be  such  that  the  diffusion  of  heat 
through  the  cheese  cloth  curtains  at  the  side  of  the  benches  will  be  sufficient 
to  keep  the  atmosphere  throughout  the  propagating  house  at  the  proper 
temperature ;  that  is,  45  to  50  or  55  degrees. 

Propagating  Mediums 

Many  different  materials  can  be  used  as  media  in  which  to  strike  cut- 
tings. Sifted  coal  ashes  or  pulverized  cinders  mixed  with  sand  may  be 


Short  Span  -to  South  Propagating  House 
Width,  17  feet;   height  to  ridge,  9  feet;   width  of  benches,  5  feet 

employed.  Cocoanut  fiber,  also  ground  sphagnum  moss  mixed  with  sand, 
and  a  number  of  porous  materials  free  from  vegetable  or  fermenting  or 
decaying  matter,  have  been  used  with  success. 

79 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 


In  the  preparation  of  material  used  to  fill  the  benches  care  must  always 
be  taken  that  it  shall  not  be  mixed  with  sour  loam,  and  especially  with 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  as  such  impurities  tend  to  develop  that  bane 
of  the  propagator,  the  cutting  bench  fungus.  The  most  desirable  and  profit- 
able material  for  propagating  purposes  is  clean,  sharp  builders'  sand.  Many 
qualities  and  textures  of  sand  may  be  employed,  and  each  grower  must 
put  up  with  the  best  that  may  be  available  in  his  locality.  The  sand  should 
be  sharp,  free  from  loam  and  all  other  impurities,  and  in  preparing  it  for 
the  bench  it  should  be  sifted  through  a  fine  sieve  so  as  to  remove  all  small 
stones  and  make  it  run  even  in  texture.  If  it  can  be  sterilized  so  much 
the  better. 

Three  to  four  inches  in  depth  of  sand  is  sufficient ;  in  fact,  a  bench 
with  two  and  a  half  inches  of  clean  sand  overlying  the  terra  cotta  or  brick 

bottom  makes  one  of  the  most  successful 
propagating  benches.  In  filling  the  bench 
the  sand  should  be  compacted  by  hammering 
it  with  a  brick  or  a  tool  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, so  that  it  will  be  of  an  even  density 
throughout  the  entire  bench.  The  sand  must 
be  thoroughly  moist  throughout  and  com- 
pacted before  the  cuttings  are  placed  in  it. 


Tool  for  Firming  Sand. 


In  placing  the  cuttings  in  the  sand  they  must  be  inserted  firmly  without 
bruising  them  in  any  manner,  and  the  sand  compacted  about  the  base  so 
that  the  cutting  is  held  firmly  and  erect,  and  no  air  can  get  to  the  base  to 
wither  or  dry  it  up. 

The  following  method  of  preparing  the  cuttings  has  proved  the  best 
under  our  practice  at  Queens,  after  many  years  of  experimental  work, 
during  which  period  upward  of  two  and  a  half  millions  of  cuttings  have 
been  rooted  and  either  sold  or  grown  into  plants :  The  cuttings  are  taken 
from  the  plants  with  a  short,  sharp,  downward  pull,  that  tears  off  a  little 
of  the  bark  from. the  main  stem.  If  the  cutting  is  so  soft  that  none  of  the 
bark  from  the  main  stem  comes  with  it,  it  is  not  considered  in  a  fit  condi- 
tion for  striking.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  so  hard  that  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  wood  from  the  main  stem  is  removed  with  the  cutting,  form- 
ing a  tail  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  it  is  considered  too  hard  and  not  desir- 
able. Just  sufficient  of  the  bark  of  the  main  stem  should  come  away  with 
the  cutting  to  form  a  little  splint  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  or  a  little  over,  in 
length. 

80 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

As  fast  as  the  cuttings  are  removed  from  the  plants  they  are  taken  to  a 
cool  room  and  laid  upon  a  table,  and  immediately  dampened  and  covered 
with  moist  paper.  They  are  kept  moistened  and  cool  while  undergoing  the 
process  of  preparation,  and  until  they  are  placed  in  the  sand  are  not  exposed 
to  drying  winds  nor  allowed  to  wilt.  But  when  placed  in  the  sand  they  are 
more  plump  and  brittle,  if  anything,  than  when  taken  from  the  plant. 

I  much  prefer  taking  the  cuttings  in  the  early  part  of  the  day  when 
the  plant  is  fresh  and  plump.  I  do  not  consider  cuttings  taken  late  in  the 
day,  when  the  plant  may  be  somewhat  wilted,  as  good  for  propagating 
purposes  as  when  taken  from  the  plant  when  in  a  fresh,  brittle  condition. 

In  preparing  cuttings  the  little  splint  of  bark  at  the  heel  is  taken  off 
just  a  shade  below  the  heel  with  a  very  sharp  knife.  The  short  curled  leaves 
at  the  base  of  the  cutting,  wherever  they  will  interfere  with  putting  it  into 
the  sand  easily,  are  also  removed,  and  with  very  long  cuttings  the  tips  of 
the  foliage  are  trimmed  off. 

Putting  the  Cuttings  in  the  Sand  Bench 

This  is  an  operation  which  must  be  performed,  not  only  with  rapidity, 
but  with  such  care  and  thoroughness  as  will  secure  the  firm  fixing  of  the 
cutting  in  the  sand,  and  the  packing  of  the  sand  about  the  base  of  the  cut- 
ting so  firmly  that  the  air  cannot  get  at  the  base  where  the  callous  properly 
forms. 

The  sand  in  the  cutting  bench  is  sprayed  with  a  fine  rose  until  it  is 
thoroughly  moistened  to  the  bottom  of  the  bench.  The  sand  is  then  com- 


Patty  Knife. 

pacted  with  a  special  tool  made  for  the  purpose  until  the  bench  is  firm 
and  hard  throughout.  There  are  two  simple  tools  used  during  the  opera- 
tion ;  one  is  the  straightedge,  which  is  made  long  enough  to  reach  across 
the  bench,  and  which  is  usually  about  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  one 
and  a  quarter  to  one  and  a  half  inches  in  width.  The  second  tool  is  an 
ordinary  wide-bladed  putty  knife,  about  eight  inches  in  length.  (See  accom- 
panying engraving.)  The  straightedge  is  laid  upon  the  sand  and  given 

6  8l 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

several  sharp  raps  along  its  length  with  the  butt  of  the  knife  handle. 
The  knife  is  then  drawn  along  the  edge,  cutting  a  drill  in  the  sand  from 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  depth,  according  to  the  size  and 
length  of  the  heels  of  the  cuttings  which  are  being  benched.  The  cut- 
tings are  then  placed  in  this  trench,  about  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  apart.  By  sharply  pressing  downward  on  the  cutting  the  base  will  be 
fixed  in  the  bottom  of  the  drill  so  firmly  that  it  holds  the  cutting  perfectly 
erect.  When  the  row  is  full  the  straightedge  is  again  laid  alongside  of 
the  row  of  cuttings  and  given  several  sharp  raps  with  the  butt  of  the 
knife  handle.  This  compacts  firmly  the  sand  around  the  base  of  the  cut- 
ting. The  straightedge  still  lying  in  position,  the  knife  is  again  drawn 
along  its  edge,  cutting  the  drill  as  before  about  an  inch  and  a  half  distant 
from  the  row  of  cuttings  already  set  in. 

This  operation  is  repeated  until  the  stock  is  in  the  bench.  As  soon  as 
the  operator  finishes  his  batch  of  cuttings  he  takes  a  Boston  hose  nozzle 
and  wets  down  the  bench  with  sufficient  thoroughness  to  compact  the  sand 
round  the  base  of  the  cuttings  and  fill  up  all  the  interstices  which  may 
have  been  left.  The  cuttings  are  now  ready  for  the  operation  of  callousing 
and  rooting,  and  if  they  have  been  properly  selected  and  placed  in  the  sand, 
and  if  they  receive  the  correct  treatment  thereafter,  from  95  to  98  per  cent, 
of  cuttings  taken  from  most  varieties  of  carnations  will  produce  strong,  well- 
rooted  plants. 

The  temperature  of  the  propagating  house  should  be  maintained  at  cer- 
tainly not  higher  than  50  to  55  degrees  overhead ;  if  possible  to  keep  it  as 
low  as  that.  It  is  probably  better  for  the  health  of  the  cuttings  if  the  over- 
head temperature  runs  from  45  to  50  degrees,  and  it  can  be  maintained  as 
low  as  40  degrees  provided  the  bottom  or  sand  temperature  is  carried  from 
10  to  15  degrees  higher.  But  where  the  temperature  is  carried  as  low 
as  40  degrees  the  rooting  process  of  most  varieties  of  carnations  will  take 
an  additional  week. 

The  sand  temperature  should  run  from  about  56  to  60  degrees,  cer- 
tainly not  higher  than  65  degrees,  the  lower  temperature  being  much  pre- 
ferred. 

After  having  been  sprayed  sufficiently  to  firm  down  any  loose  sand 
around  the  base  of  the  cuttings,  only  sufficient  spraying  or  watering  should 
be  given  daily  to  keep  the  cuttings  from  flagging  or  wilting.  It  is  de- 
cidedly deleterious  to  spray  too  much  or  to  keep  the  sand  surcharged  with 
water,  as  such  condition  produces  a  soft  growth  and  thereby  promotes  dis- 
eases, such  as  the  cutting  bench  fungus  and  stem  rot.  For  the  same  rea- 

82 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

son,  a  too  dense  shade  is  not  desirable.  Movable  cloth-covered  sash  are 
preferred  to  permanent  shading,  so  that  on  dark,  cloudy  days  the  houses 
may  be  kept  in  a  lighter  condition  by  removing  the  sash  shades. 

The  atmosphere  of  the  propagating  house  should  at  all  times  be  moist, 
and  this  is  best  maintained  by  dampening  the  paths  early  in  the  morning, 
and  possibly  again  during  the  middle  of  the  day  as  the  season  advances 
and  the  sun  becomes  brighter. 

In  order  to  keep  down  green  fly,  aphis,  thrips,  etc.,  a  moderate  but 
constant  evaporation  of  some  tobacco  preparation  is  desirable.  One  of  the 
best  means  of  producing  this  is  by  the  use  of  the  Lonsdale  Evaporating 
Pan.  This  pan  is  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  screwed  on  to  the  heating 
pipes ;  the  steam  passes  through  a  hollow  chamber  underneath  the  pan, 
heating  the  contents  and  driving  them  off  into  the  air  slowly,  charging  the 
air  with  tobacco-laden  fumes.  Where  such  evaporating  pans  are  not  avail- 
able similar  results  may  be  attained  by  painting  the  heating  pipes,  once 
each  week,  with  a  solution  of  tobacco  extract,  of  the  consistency  of  thin 
paint.  Insects  may  also  be  kept  down  and  destroyed  by  fumigating  the 
propagating  house  with  either  tobacco  stems  or  tobacco  dust.  The  tobacco 
extract  may  also  be  evaporated  from  an  ordinary  metal  pan  of  any  descrip- 
tion placed  upon  an  oil  stove.  Fumigation  by  burning  tobacco  stems,  or 
tobacco  dust,  is  not  as  desirable  as  the  use  of  the  tobacco  extract.  This 
extract  can  be  used  without  any  danger  of  injuring  the  cuttings ;  whereas, 
when  fumigating  by  burning  stems  the  cuttings  may  be  injured  in  case  the 
houses  are  filled  with  a  too  dense  smoke. 

In  about  ten  days  after  the  cuttings  are  placed  in  the  sand  they  wilt 
begin  to  callous,  which  operation  precedes  the  formation  of  roots.  Less 
moisture  is  required  at  this  period,  and  more  care  in  ventilating.  As  soon 
as  the  cuttings  emit  roots,  which  will  be  in  from  eighteen  to  twenty-one 
days  from  the  time  they  are  put  into  the  sand,  the  withholding  of  water  and 
giving  of  more  air  for  the  purpose  of  hardening  off  the  cuttings  should 
commence. 

Cuttings  of  different  varieties  of  carnations  require  from  three  to  five 
weeks  to  become  thoroughly  well  rooted,  according  to  the  condition  and 
disposition  of  the  variety  and  the  temperature  at  which  the  propagating 
house  is  carried.  If  the  temperature  under  the  benches  be  held  at  70  to  75 
degrees,  and  the  overhead  temperature  at  from  60  to  65  degrees,  cuttings 
will  root  a  few  days  sooner  than  if  the  temperature  is  carried  lower ;  but  the 
time  gained  by  employing  such  high  temperature  is  at  the  expense  of  the 

83 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

future  constitution  of  the  plant,  and  for  this  reason  rooting  cuttings  in  high 
temperatures  should  be  avoided. 

As  soon  as  the  roots  have  grown  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  an  inch 
in  length  the  cuttings  should  be  taken  out  of  the  sand  and  potted  up.  How- 
ever, if  they  are  to  be  shipped  to  a  considerable  distance,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  leave  them  in  the  sand  several  days  longer,  as  when  the  roots  are 
so  very  young  they  are  brittle  and  are  apt  to  be  shaken  off  during  the  proc- 
ess of  packing  and  shipping.  While  cuttings  are  in  a  better  condition  for 
potting  up  when  the  roots  are  young  than  those  that  have  been  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  sand  until  the  wood,  as  well  as  the  roots,  has  become  hardened 
and  tough,  they  will  not  ship  as  well,  and  many  rootlets  will  be  lost.  When 
potted,  the  younger  cuttings  will  start  into  growth  sooner  after  potting  than 
the  older,  tougher  stock. 

Packing  Cuttings  for  Shipment 

Cuttings  designed  for  shipment  to  any  considerable  distance  should  not 
be  taken  from  the  sand  until  the  rootlets  have  made  a  growth  of  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length.  .  In  removing  them  from  the  sand 
it  should  be  very  carefully  done,  so  as  not  to  destroy  or  break  off  the  root- 
lets. When  taken  from  the  sand  the  cuttings  should  be  at  once  placed  in 
a  cool  situation,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  they  be  allowed  to  re- 
main exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  or  drying  winds  or  heat,  as  such  exposure 
will  cause  them  to  flag  or  wilt.  The  sand  from  which  they  are  taken  should 
be  fairly  moist,  but  not  surcharged  with  water.  In  shipping  long  distances, 
and  for  the  purposes  of  light  packing,  we  frequently  wash  the  sand  from 
the  roots  by  dipping  them  in  a  pail  of  water.  If  this  is  carefully  done  the 
roots  are  less  liable  to  be  broken  or  rubbed  off  in  packing  than  if  the  sand 
is  left  adhering. 

In  packing,  fine,  clean  sphagnum  moss  should  be  used,  and  this  should 
be  wetted  down  some  time  previously  in  order  to  have  it  equally  well 
moistened  throughout.  It  should  not  be  wringing  wet,  but  in  a  state  to 
retain  a  fair  degree  of  moisture  for  a  number  of  days.  Both  moss  and  cut- 
tings should  be  in  a  cool  condition  before  packing.  If  kept  in  a  temperature 
of  45  to  50  degrees  they  will  be  in  the  right  condition  to  pack.  If  packed 
in  a  high  temperature,  it  will  tend  to  cause  heating  during  transit,  espe- 
cially in  the  spring  or  warm  months. 

It  is  best  to  pack  cuttings  in  bunches  of  twenty-five ;  not  exceeding  fifty 
in  any  case.  In  packing,  sheets  of  strong,  soft  paper  (old  newspapers), 
cut  to  about  nine  to  twelve  inches  in  size,  should  be  provided.  Lay  a  small 

84 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

handful  of  damp  sphagnum  moss  upon  the  sheet  of  paper,  so  spread  out  and 
disposed  that  when  the  cuttings  are  placed  on  the  moss  their  roots  and  necks 
will  be  covered  by  the  moss,  but  the  tops  will  remain  free  and  dry.  Spread 
the  cuttings  on  the  moss  in  a  thin  line,  roots  and  tops  equally  disposed. 
Commence  rolling  the  paper  so  as  to  close  in  the  moss  and  cuttings.  After 
giving  one  roll  fold  the  paper  at  the  bottom  over  the  roots  and 
then  roll  all  into  a  fairly  compact  bundle.  Roll  evenly  and  gently.  Do 
not  press  hard  upon  the  roots,  or  they  will  be  bruised,  and  many  of  them 
break  off.  Tie  the  bundle  neatly  with  a  soft  string,  some  raffia,  or  enclose 
with  an  elastic  rubber  band,  and  the  cuttings  are  then  ready  to  pack  in  the 
case. 

Use  a  case  just  large  enough  to  hold  the  quantity  to  be  shipped.  Line 
the  case  with  heavy  paper,  using  as  many  thicknesses  as  may  be  required 
to  keep  out  the  frost.  Old  newspapers  make  the  best  of  all  linings  and  are 
not  expensive.  In  very  cold  weather,  ten,  and  often  fifteen,  thicknesses  of 
paper  are  necessary  in  order  to  protect  the  plants  from  freezing,  and,  in 
addition,  the  box  should  be  wrapped  upon  the  outside  with  five  or  six  thick- 
nesses and  covered  with  a  final  wrapping  of  heavy  manilla  paper,  which 
should  be  securely  tied  or  nailed  on  so  that  no  air  can  get  through  to  the 
box.  In  packing  large  cases,  excelsior  should  be  placed  between  the  layers 
so  as  to  prevent  heating.  Finally,  nail  the  cover  on  the  box  securely. 
When  nailed,  the  contents  of  the  box  should  be  so  firmly  packed  that  they 
will  not  move  or  shake  about. 

Be  sure  to  write  the  name  and  address  of  the  consignee  plainly  upon 
the  box,  so  that  there  will  be  no  mistake  upon  the  part  of  the  shipping  agents 
in  determining  its  destination.  Forward  by  such  train  as  will  insure  a 
prompt  delivery  of  the  shipment  to  the  consignee.  Delays  in  transit  are  dan- 
gerous to  carnation  cuttings,  and  many  a  shipper  is  blamed  for  sending  poor 
stock,  when  the  real  fault  lies  in  improper  packing  and  careless  handling  and 
delay  en  route. 

Propagation  by  Layering 

There  is  very  little  propagation  by  layering  practiced  among  the  carnation 
growers  of  the  United  States ;  so  little,  in  fact,  that  we  have  practically  no 
literature  upon  the  subject.  I  must  confess  that  I  have  done  very  little  of  it, 
as  I  found  our  hot,  dry  summers  not  well  adapted  to  the  operation. 

The  following  description  of  layering,  as  practiced  by  the  English 
gardener,  is  taken  from  an  essay  by  R.  Dean,  which  was  published  in  the 

85 


Propagating  and  Shipping  Young  Stock 

Carnation  Manual,  edited  and  issued  by  the  National  Carnation  and  Picotee 
Society,  southern  section  of  England: 

"August  is  the  month  in  which  to  layer  carnations ;  the  shoots  have  be- 
come firm,  and  can  be  manipulated  without  danger  of  snapping  off.  The  first  process 
is  to  trim  the  layers,  using  a  pair  of  sharp  scissors,  cutting  away  the  leaves  close  to 
the  stem  up  to  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  joint  from  the  point.  Then,  by  means  of  a 
pointed  stake,  take  out  from  the  pot  two  inches  or  so  of  the  old  soil,  and  replace  it 
with  new,  something  after  the  nature  of  that  recommended  for  cuttings.  Should  the 
soil  about  the  roots  be  dry,  give  a  good  soaking  of  water,  and  allow  it  to  drain  away 
before  filling  the  pot  with  fresh  soil.  The  new  compost  should  be  raised  up  to  the 
level  of  the  rim,  but  pressed  somewhat  firmly  as  the  work  of  filling  proceeds.  Pegs 
are  necessary  to  fasten  the  layers  securely  down  into  the  soil.  Those  made  of  fern 
are  usually  employed;  it  is  also  possible  to  obtain  pegs  made  of  flexible  wire,  and 
these,  being  much  more  durable,  are  cheapest  in  the  end.  Then  the  layerer,  taking 
the  trimmed  shoot  firmly  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  his  left  hand,  thrusts  his 
knife — the  blade  of  which  should  be  small,  narrow,  and  sharpened  on  both  sides — 
through  the  third  or  fourth  joint,  bringing  it  out  at  the  back  by  means  of  a  clean  and 
rapid  cut ;  the  tongue  of  the  layer  is  shortened,  if  necessary ;  it  is  then  pressed  gently 
down  into  the  fresh  soil,  and  secured  by  means  of  a  peg.  When  the  whole  of  the 
layers  are  laid  down — and  they  generally  are  made  to  form  a  fringe  around  the  inner 
rim  of  the  pot — the  surface  soil  should  be  leveled  off  and  the  surface  made  neat. 

"Some  shoots  are  too  high  up  on  the  plant  to  be  able  to  bend  them  low  enough 
to  layer  in  the  ordinary  way.  A  zinc  rim,  two  or  three  inches  in  depth,  can  be  fitted 
to  the  pots,  filled  with  soil,  and  by  this  means  it  is  brought  nearer  to  the  level  of 
the  layers. 

"When  all  is  completed,  a  light  sprinkling  overhead  should  be  given  by  means  of 
a  rose  watering-pot,  and  the  pots  stood  out  in  the  open  until  the  layers  have  rooted, 
which,  in  good  season,  will  happen  in  from  a  month  to  six  weeks. 

"By  the  end  of  September,  and  during  the  first  two  weeks  in  October,  the  layers 
will  be  sufficiently  rooted  to  admit  of  potting  off." 


86 


CHAPTER  VII 

Treatment  of  Young  Carnation   Stock   Preparatory  to 

Planting  Out 

AS  soon  as  the  cuttings  have  become  well  furnished  with  young  rootlets, 
ranging  from  a  quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  length,  they  are  ready  to 
be  transferred  to  small  pots  (two  to  two-and-a-quarter-inch)  or 
planted  out  in  flats,  and  to  enter  upon  their  second  period  of  growth. 
The  preparation  of  the  soil  to  be  used  in  this  stage  of  growing  the 
young  plants  is  fully  described  in  Chapter  IV.  Such  soil  should  be  kept 
always  on  hand  where  it  will  not  be  exposed  to  heavy  rainstorms  and 
its  fertility  lost  by  leaching.  When  prepared  for  potting,  the  soil  should 
be  in  a  slightly  moist  condition ;  that  is,  it  should  feel  smooth  and  com- 
fortable to  the  hand  and  break  up  easily  when  rolled  into  a  ball  and 
pressed  or  crushed.  The  degree  of  moisture  should  not  be  such  as  to 
cause  the  ball  to  be  permanently  hardened  by  the  operation  of  potting, 
but  there  should  be  sufficient  so  that  the  soil  can  be  properly  firmed. 
Two-inch  pots  for  moderate  growing  varieties,  and  two-and-a-quarter-inch 
for  the  larger,  stronger  growing  sorts,  are  the  proper  sizes  to  use.  Smaller 
pots  are  disadvantageous,  as  they  dry  out  rapidly  and  require  frequent 
watering,  while  larger  pots  are  objectionable  because  of  the  amount  of 
bench  room  they  occupy,  as  well  as  the  danger  of  over-watering.  If  a 
deep  pot  is  used,  such  as  a  rose  pot,  it  is  preferred  by  many  and  may  be 
beneficial  where  light  soil  is  employed  for  potting. 

The  operation  of  potting  is  very  simple ;  nevertheless,  it  requires  atten- 
tion, care  and  a  close  observation  of  detail,  in  order  that  it  may  be  done  with 
rapidity  and  correctly.  The  soil,  having  been  thoroughly  broken  up,  and 
the  larger  lumps  and  clods  reduced  so  that  the  mass  is  of  an  even  texture 
throughout,  is  placed  upon  the  potting  bench  in  a  heap  in  front  of  the  oper- 
ator. The  workman  takes  the  pot  in  his  left  hand,  filling  the  pot  about  two- 
thirds  to  three-quarters  full  of  soil.  The  cutting  is  then  taken  in  the  right 
hand,  the  roots  being  placed  in  the  pot  and  shaken  so  as  to  be  spread  out  in 
a  natural  manner.  More  soil  is  then  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  roots  until 

87 


Treatment  of  Young  Carnation  Stock 

the  pot  is  filled  slightly  above  the  rim.  The  pot  is  then  given  a  sharp  rap 
on  the  table  and  the  soil  firmed  with  the  thumbs  around  the  edge  of  the 
pot  and  over  the  roots. 

When  the  operation  of  potting  is  completed  the  neck  of  the  plant  should 
be  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  below  the  top,  or  rim,  of  the  pot.  The  work 
should  be  thoroughly  done  and  the  soil  well  firmed  so  that  it  will  hold  the 
cutting  erect  when  watered.  Care,  however,  must  be  taken  not  to  pot  the 
cuttings  too  deep.  The  root  crown  should  be  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  As  each  plant  is  potted  it  is  placed  in  a  flat 
which  stands  at  the  left  of  the  operator,  and  as  fast  as  these  flats  are  filled 
a  helper  carries  them  away  and  places  them  on  the  benches  in  a  well-venti- 
lated, light  house. 

The  first  watering  of  freshly  potted  cuttings  should  be  light,  and  the 
bench  gone  over  perhaps  twice  with  a  light  showering  in  order  to  afford  to 
all  of  the  plants  an  even  supply  of  water.  A  fine  Boston  rose  is  used,  which 
throws  the  water  upon  the  plants  in  a  gentle,  misty  shower,  as  is  the  case 
when  a  gentle  rain  is  falling.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  newly 
potted  plants  be  soaked  with  a  heavy  deluge  of  water,  but  the  watering  should 
be  done  in  such  a  manner  that  in  the  course  of  an  hour  the  moisture  has 
penetrated  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot  and  the  soil  is  evenly  moistened  through- 
out, but  not  in  a  sodden  condition.  So  far  as  I  have  observed,  much  injury 
is  frequently  done  by  the  soaking  of  freshly  potted  plants,  in  many  instances 
the  young  rootlets  being  destroyed  or  drowned  out  by  the  surplus  water; 
indeed,  I  have  seen  many  who  profess  to  be  expert  carnation  growers  soak- 
ing the  cuttings  to  such  an  extent  that  a  considerable  portion  of  them  damped 
off.  The  young  plant,  when  taken  from  the  sand  with  its  roots  just  form- 
ing, is  to  a  certain  extent  in  a  delicate  condition,  and  requires  very  favorable 
growing  surroundings  in  order  that  it  may  continue  growth  without  seri- 
ous check.  It  needs  no  more  moisture  in  the  soil  than  its  root  system  can 
absorb  and  the  plant  can  evaporate  through  the  foliage.  Anything  beyond 
this  is  a  surplusage  and  a  distinct  detriment. 

After  the  plants  are  watered  they  should  be  lightly  shaded,  and  so  long 
as  they  do  not  wilt  they  should  not  receive  additional  water  until  root  action 
commences.  This  can  be  told  from  the  appearance  of  the  plants,  which  will 
straighten  up  and  the  foliage  become  plump  and  fresh.  At  this  period — 
that  is,  until  the  plants  straighten  up,  showing  root  action — the  house  should 
be  kept  a  little  close  and  the  young  plants  protected  from  draughts.  If 
properly  treated,  root  action  will  commence  within  thirty-six  to  forty-eight 
hours,  and  it  should  be  well  established  within  three  to  four  days  from  the 

88 


Treatment  of  Young  Carnation  Stock 

time  of  potting.  The  shading  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  plants  show 
that  they  have  a  firm  hold  of  the  soil.  However,  in  the  late  spring,  when 
the  sun  is  exceptionally  hot,  the  shading  may  be  continued  during  the  hot- 
test part  of  very  bright,  sunshiny  days,  in  order  to  prevent  flagging,  wilting 
or  the  soil  drying  out  too  rapidly. 

Flats  may  be  substituted  for  pots,  and  are  largely  used  by  many  growers 
who  have  not  sufficient  bench  room  to  hold  the  number  of  plants  they  re- 
quire in  pots,  as  many  more  plants  in  flats  than  in  pots  can  be  carried  upon 
the  same  bench  space.  There  are,  however,  many  objections  to  flats,  and  of 
late  years  the  more  experienced  growers  are  gradually  abandoning  their  use 
and  employing  pots  exclusively. 

Flats  should  be  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  inches  deep,  and  may  be 
twenty-four  inches  long  and  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  wide.  A  num- 
ber of  holes  should  be  bored  through  the  bottom,  or  the  bottom  should  be 
made  of  slats  in  order  to  provide  for  drainage.  A  perfectly  tight  flat  which 
provides  for  no  drainage  is  dangerous,  for  the  reason  that  the  soil  is  liable 
to  be  over-watered  and  become  soured,  and  the  growth  of  the  plants  checked. 
Where  this  occurs  the  plants  will  turn  a  sickly,  yellowish-green  color.  The 
same  thing  will  take  place  if  the  plants  are  over-watered  in  the  pots  or  if 
they  are  allowed  to  stand  in  pots  or  flats  until  they  become  root-bound  and 
the  soil  exhausted.  The  plants  may  be  set  in  flats  in  rows  two  and  a  half  to 
three  inches  apart,  and  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  apart  in  the  row,  using 
the  same  care  not  to  plant  too  deeply  as  is  recommended  to  be  used  in  potting. 

Shifting 

After  the  young  plants  have  been  growing  in  the  small  pots  from  four 
to  six  weeks  the  soil  will  become  exhausted  and  so  well  filled  with  roots 
that  the  plants  will  need  more  room  and  additional  soil  in  which  to  expand 
their  root  system  and  elaborate  their  growth.  It  will  then  be  necessary  to 
shift  into  a  larger  pot,  and  this  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  ball  is  well 
filled  with  roots,  and  before  any  tendency  to  harden  in  the  plant  has  been 
developed.  Probably  many  of  the  important  failures  in  carnation  growing 
are  due  to  improper  treatment  of  young  stock  at  this  period.  If  a  plant  is 
once  thoroughly  checked  and  hardened  so  that  growth  is  entirely  stopped 
and  the  plant  brought  to  an  absolutely  dormant  condition,  it  will  seldom, 
if  ever,  be  as  good  a  plant  as  if  it  had  been  kept  in  a  healthful,  vigorous, 
growing  condition.  It  may  give  as  large  a  crop  of  flowers,  and  in  some  in- 
stances a  larger  one,  especially  if  the  plant  has  been  seriously  checked,  as 
after  serious  checks  the  plant  will  endeavor  to  perpetuate  its  species  by  the 

89 


Treatment  of  Young  Carnation  Stock 

production  of  an  abundant  crop  of  flowers  and  the  maturing  of  seed ;  but 
the  stems  will  be  shorter  and  more  tough  and  wiry,  and  the  blooms  smaller. 
In  order  to  get  the  best  results  in  the  way  of  long,  stiff  stems  and  large 
flowers  with  perfect  calyces,  carnation  plants  should  not  be  checked  in  growth 
from  the  time  they  are  taken  from  the  cutting  bench,  but  should  be  kept  in  a 
vigorous,  healthy  growing  condition  throughout  the  entire  period  of  forcing 
and  blooming. 

In  shifting  from  a  two-inch  pot  a 
two-and-a-half  to  three-inch  pot  may  be 
used,  according  to  the  vigor  of  the 
variety;  and  for  plants  growing  in  two- 
and-a-quarter-inch  pots  a  three  to  three- 
and-a-half-inch  pot  is  suitable.  In  shift- 
ing, when  the  young  plant  is  turned  out  of 
the  pot  preparatory  to  repotting,  the  soil 
should  be  broken  away  from  the  neck  of 
the  plant  and  the  ball  lightly  crushed. 
Sufficient  soil  is  put  into  the  larger  pot, 
so  that  when  the  ball  is  placed  in  the  pot 
the  neck  of  the  plant  will  stand  just  at 
the  rim.  Fresh  soil  is  then  filled  in 
around  the  outside  of  the  ball  and  packed 
and  firmed  with  the  thumbs,  adding  more 
soil  until  the  top  of  the  ball  is  covered, 
and  then  firming  done  well.  The  same 
care  should  here  be  taken  that  the  neck 
of  the  plant  be  not  placed  too  deep. 
Similar  attention  as  to  watering  should 
also  be  -used  as  with  the  first  potting. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  the  plants 
be  deluged  with  water;  the  soil  in  the 
pots  should  be  only  sufficiently  moist  to 
carry  on  active  growth. 


Young  Carnation  Plant  in  2-inch  pot 

ready  for  shifting  to  a  larger  pot 

Note  the  active  root  action 


Pinching  Back  or  Stopping 

After  the  plants  have  been  repotted,  and  with  some  varieties  while  still 
in  the  smaller  pots,  the  center  shoot  will  push  forward  and  begin  to  form  a 
bud.  As  soon  as  this  bud  has  become  fairly  well  formed,  the  shoot  should 
be  cut  back  (leaving  four  to  six  joints),  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the  plant 


90 


Treatment  of  Young  Carnation  Stock 

to  break  new  growths  at  the  joints  or  axils  of  the  leaves.  When  ready  to 
be  set  in  the  field,  or  when  they  are  to  be  set  upon  the  benches  in  June  for 
culture  under  glass  throughout  the  summer,  all  plants  that  have  been  struck 
in  January  and  February  should  have  been  stopped  back  at  least  once,  and 
each  plant  should  have  from  four  to  five  good  strong  breaks  that  are  pretty 
well  advanced  in  growth.  It  will  be  of  no  disadvantage  if  these  growths 
are  well  advanced  toward  the  first  stages  of  bud  formation. 


Carnation  Plants  Ready  lor  Planting  in  the  Field 
a — Plants  that  have  been  stopped  b — Plant  not  yet  ready  (or  stopping 

Cuttings  rooted  in  January  and  February,  which  are  to  be  carried  in 
pots  until  June  and  planted  upon  benches  for  growth  under  glass  through- 
out the  summer,  should  receive  not  less  than  two  shifts  after  potting  up ; 
first  from  the  two-inch  to  a  three-inch  pot,  and  then  into  a  four-inch  pot. 
Such  plants  should  have  from  four  to  six  strong  breaks  that  are  pretty  well 
advanced  toward  the  bud  formation. 

In  order  to  get  the  best  results  from  cultivation  under  glass  throughout 

91 


Treatment  of  Young  Carnation  Stock 

the  summer  only  extra  strong  plants  should  be  used.  While  the  young  plants 
remain  growing  in  the  pots  all  blooming  shoots  should  be  cut  back  as  soon 
as  in  the  proper  condition.  When  ready  to  set  in  the  field  the  young  plants 
should  have  a  strong,  vigorous  appearance.  The  stems  should  be  brittle, 
and  the  color  should  be  of  a  dark,  rich  green,  a  striking  contrast  to  the  sickly, 
yellowish  green  which  is  seen  in  plants  that  have  been  either  over-potted  or 
over-watered,  or  allowed  to  become  root -bound  or  stood  in  an  exhausted  soil. 

In  preparing  the  young  stock,  before  planting  into  the  field  the  plants 
should  receive  sufficient  water  to  moisten  the  balls  through  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pot.  When  turned  out  of  the  pots  and  placed  in  flats  to  be  carried  into 
the  field,  the  top  soil,  to  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth,  should  be  taken 
off  with  the  fingers,  and  the  ball  should  receive  a  slight  pressure  to  break 
up  its  dense,  compact  condition,  for  it  is  always  desirable  to  have  the  balls  of 
soil  mellow,  and  very  undesirable  to  have  them  in  a  hardened,  brick-like 
state  when  planted  out.  When  planted  either  on  the  benches  or  in  the  field, 
the  ball  of  soil  should  be  sufficiently  broken  up  so  that  it  will  incorporate 
readily  with  and  absorb  moisture  promptly  from  the  surrounding  mass  of  soil. 
This  will  not  be  the  case  if  the  balls  have  become  root-bound  and  hardened 
and  are  planted  in  the  field  without  being  broken  up  or  mellowed. 

The  time  at  which  young  plants  should  be  put  into  the  field  varies  with 
different  localities.  In  the  Southern  States  they  might  be  set  out  as  early 
as  the  ist  of  March.  At  Queens  we  have  occasionally  set  out  plants  as  early 
as  the  middle  to  the  25th  of  March.  Farther  north,  in  Canada  or  the  State 
of  Maine,  the  time  may  run  well  into  the  ist  of  June  before  planting  out 
is  done.  As  a  general  rule,  throughout  most  sections  of  the  country  the 
ist  to  the  1 5th  of  May  should  see  the  largest  proportion  of  the  young  stock 
planted  in  the  field.  But  in  localities  subject  to  severe  late  frosts  the  operation 
may  well  be  deferred  until  after  the  danger  from  frost  is  over.  This  brings 
up  the  mooted  question:  "Are  properly  hardened  carnation  plants  injured 
by  frosts  when  freshly  planted  in  the  spring?"  Many  growers  hold  that  they 
are  not,  but  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  present  race  of  carnations,  which 
are  purely  the  product  of  hybridization  under  glass,  and  which  are  grown 
under  glass  at  all  times  excepting  when  planted  in  the  fields  in  the  summer 
time,  are  'injured  by  frosts,  and  I  hold  that  no  young  carnation  plant  des- 
tined for  winter  blooming  should  be  put  into  the  field  before  all  danger  from 
serious  frosts  is  past. 

We  have  occasionally  taken  late  rooted  cuttings  from  the  sand  and 
planted  them  in  the  field  during  the  latter  part  of  May  and  early  part  of 
June  with  considerable  success.  These  cuttings,  if  planted  out  in  freshly 

92 


Treatment  of  Young  Carnation  Stock 

worked,  moist,  mellow  soil  just  before  a  shower,  frequently  commence 
growth  at  once,  and  in  many  instances  have  made  practically  as  good  plants 
as  stock  struck  three  weeks  earlier  and  planted  out  at  the  same  time  from 
two-inch  pots.  But  this  will  not  hold  as  a  rule.  Young  stock  planted  from 
the  .sand  into  the  field  is  more  apt  to  be  injured  by  either  droughts  or  ex- 
cessively heavy  rains  than  stock  from  pots,  so  that  while  we  occasionally 
do  this  in  order  to  save  time  and  labor  it  cannot  be  recommended  as  a  gen- 
eral practice. 


A  New  York   Wholesale  Florist's  Window 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Field  Culture  of  Carnations 

AT  the  present  time  probably  95  per  cent,  of  the  carnations  grown  com- 
mercially are  planted  in  the  field,  cultivated  during  spring  and 
summer,  and  allowed  to  make  their  growth  before  being  planted  on 
the  greenhouse  benches,  where  they  mature  their  crop  of  flowers.  The 
preparation  of  soil  for  field  planting  is  described  in  Chapter  IV.  All  carna- 
tion plants  should  be  planted  in  the  field  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil 
can  be  gotten  into  proper  shape,  and  danger  from  frosts  is  over.  This  period 
ranges  from  the  ist  of  April  to  the  middle  of  May,  according  to  locality  and 
latitude.  In  this  latitude,  we  frequently  are  able  to  plant  by  the  middle  of 
April,  sometimes  as  early  as  April  i,  and  aim  to  have  the  bulk  of  the 
planting  done  by  the  loth  to  the  I5th  of  May,  although  many  of  the  later 
struck  cuttings  are  planted  as  late  as  the  ist  of  June.  These  late  cuttings 
make  vigorous  plants,  that  produce  fine  flowers ;  but  such  plants  do  not  bloom 
as  freely  early  in  the  season  as  the  earlier  rooted  stock. 

Assuming  that  the  soil  has  been  properly  ploughed  and  harrowed,  and 
finally  finished  with  a  pulverizing  harrow  so  that  it  is  in  a  smooth,  mellow 
condition,  the  first  step  to  determine  will  be  the  distance  apart  to  plant.  If 
for  hand  cultivation,  the  plants  should  be  placed  in  rows  not  less  than  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  not  less  than  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  These  rows  should  be  laid  out  with  a  line,  as  it  is  essential  that  they 
be  straight,  in  order  to  enable  the  hand  cultivator  to  be  used  to  advantage  in 
after  cultivation. 

In  planting  for  hand  cultivation,  a  Firefly  Hand  Plow  may  be  used  to 
advantage,  cutting  a  shallow  drill  not  more  than  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches 
deep,  which  will  be  a  sufficient  depth  to  nicely  hold  the  ball  of  roots  of  the 
young  plants.  The  ground  should  be  very  soft  and  mellow  when  planting, 
and  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  press  the  plants  down  too  deep.  The 
ball  should  be  gently  firmed  in  the  soil,  and  loose  earth  drawn  to  the  neck  of 
the  plant,  so  as  to  leave  the  top  of  the  soil  thoroughly  mellow.  The  plant 
should  not  be  set  any  deeper  in  the  soil  than  it  has  been  in  the  pot ;  that  is, 
the  neck  of  the  plant  should  be  just  at  the  surface,  or  not  to  exceed  an  eighth 

94 


Field  Culture  of  Carnations 

to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Too  many  planters 
carelessly  push  the  plant  down  into  the  soil  until  the  neck  is  from  three- 
quarters  to  an  inch  below  the  surface.  This  careless  method  should  not  be 
tolerated  by  a  careful  grower,  as  deep  planting  of  this  character  has  a  ten- 
dency to  check  the  growth  of  the  plants  and  to  cause  them  to  rot  off  at  the 
neck,  especially  if  planting  is  followed  by  an  extended  period  of  cold,  wet 
weather.  If  a  small  number  of  plants  is  to  be  set,  it  is  a  comparatively  easy 
matter  to  plant  them  at  the  proper  time,  without  much  planning  ahead.  But 
where  thousands  are  to  be  planted,  and  the  number  of  hands  is  limited,  the 
work  must  be  well  planned,  and  carried  forward  with  method  and  rapidity, 
in  order  to  get  the  stock  into  the  field  at  the  proper  season. 

Previous  to  turning  the  young  plants  out  of  the  pots,  they  should  be 
given  a  thorough  watering,  so  that  the  balls  of  soil  will  be  well  moistened 
throughout ;  but  these  should  not  be  in  a  muddy  condition.  If  the  plants 
are  set  with  the  balls  in  a  muddy  condition,  they  will  dry  out  hard,  and  be- 
come brick-like,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  impervious  to  moisture.  I  have 
seen  plants  dug  from  the  field  in  the  fall,  where  the  balls  of  soil  were  so 
hard  that  the  roots  were  actually  choked,  and  had  made  comparatively  little 
growth ;  whereas,  if  the  soil  had  been  of  the  proper  degree  of  moisture,  and 
the  balls  slightly  broken  up  before  planting,  this  condition  would  not  have 
occurred,  and  the  plants  would  have  made  normal  growth. 

As  the  plants  are  turned  out  of  the  pots  they  should  be  placed  in  flats, 
each  variety  by  itself,  with  a  label  in  every  flat,  in  order  to  prevent  mixing 
the  varieties  when  dropping  the  plants.  As  this  work  is  sometimes  done 
previous  to  the  time  of  planting,  these  flats  should  be  set  in  a  cool  shed,  out  of 
draughts,  where  the  plants  will  not  wilt,  and  where  the  soil  will  not  be  dried 
out;  and  the  plants  should  not  be  carried  into  the  field  much  faster  than  it 
is  possible  to  set  them.  If  it  should  be  necessary  to  carry  any  number  of 
plants  into  the  field  at  one  time,  they  should  be  placed  under  shade,  or  cov- 
ered with  a  light  cloth  of  some  kind,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  the  wind 
and  sun ;  a  large  sheet  made  of  plant-protecting  cloth  being  very  useful  for 
this  purpose. 

In  preparing  the  field  for  horse  culture,  after  the  ground  has  been  thor- 
oughly pulverized,  and  is  in  a  proper  mellow  condition,  a  horse  marker, 
set  so  as  to  make  drills  thirty  inches  apart  and  five  to  six  inches  deep,  is  used 
to  mark  off  the  ground.  The  fertilizer,  if  chemical  fertilizers  are  to  be 
used,  is  then  sown  with  a  machine,  which  thoroughly  mixes  the  fertilizer 
with  the  soil  in  the  drill,  and  immediately  covered  in  by  a  coverer,  which 
throws  the  soil  into  the  drill  and  raises  a  ridge  about  six  inches  high. 

95 


Field  Culture  of   Carnations 

A  man  is  then  sent  over  the  ground  with  an  ordinary  garden  rake,  to 
draw  down  these  ridges  until  they  are  quite  flat,  or  about  ten  inches  across 
the  top,  which  stands  about  an  inch  above  the  natural  surface  of  the  soil. 
This  ridging  up,  and  raking  down  the  ridges,  makes  the  soil  very  mellow, 
and  puts  it  in  a  condition  that  renders  the  operation  of  planting  easy. 

A  planting  gang  of  nine  men  and  boys  may  be  divided  up  in  about  the 
following  proportions :  four  planters,  two  droppers,  one  man  to  prepare  the 
ridges  ahead,  and  two  men  to  bring  the  plants  into  the  field,  and  return  the 
empty  flats  to  the  houses  (a  light  one-horse  wagon,  such  as  any  florist  has, 
being  used  for  this  purpose).  Such  a  crew  will  set  15,000  to  16,000  plants  a 
day,  provided  the  plants  are  turned  out  ahead  and  delivered  to  the  field  as 
fast  as  the  planters  can  handle  them. 

Boys  do  the  dropping,  and  each  dropper  takes  a  flat  and  proceeds  ahead 
of  the  planter  to  lay  the  plants  upon  the  ridge  at  the  proper  distance  apart 
for  setting.  As  he  lays  down  each  plant,  he  gives  it  a  slight  squeeze,  so  as 
to  break  up  the  ball  of  soil.  This  breaking  up  of  the  soil  ball  is  essential, 
as,  if  not  slightly  crushed,  it  may  become  hardened  and  impervious  to  water, 
and  the  growth  of  the  plant  be  thereby  seriously  interfered  with  ;  but  if  the 
ball  is  crushed  when  set  in  the  ground,  it  combines  with  the  field  soil,  and 
will  take  up  as  much  moisture  as  is  absorbed  by  the  adjoining  soil,  and  growth 
will  commence  normally.  In  setting  the  plant,  a  small  hole,  about  one  and  a 
half  inches  deep,  is  made  in  the  top  and  along  the  center  of  the  ridge,  and 
the  ball  of  the  plant  is  placed  firmly  in  this  hole.  It  is  further  firmed  in  the 
soil  by  pressing  upon  it  with  the  fingers,  and  the  operation  is  completed  by 
gathering  a  little  fine,  loose  soil  around,  over  the  ball,  sufficient  to  form  a 
light  mulch  at  the  neck  of  the  plant.  I  will  here  repeat  that  the  neck  of  the 
plant  should  be  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  certainly  not  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  below,  and  should  not  be  jammed  down  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  to  an  inch  below.  Too  deep  planting  is  deleterious,  often  causing 
stem  rot,  and  also  checking  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

A  smart  boy  will  frequently  drop  plants  as  fast  as  two  men  can  set  them ; 
but  frequently  it  will  take  two  droppers  to  three  planters ;  and  if  a  boy  is  slow, 
one  dropper  to  each  planter  may  be  required.  I  will  repeat,  that  great  cau- 
tion should  be  used  to  the  end  that  the  plants  are  not  allowed  to  lie  around 
in  the  flats  in  the  sun,  the  balls  permitted  to  become  dried  out  and  hard,  or 
the  plants  wilted.  It  will  be  necessary  to  turn  out  a  considerable  number  of 
plants  before  they  are  carried  into  the  field,  in  order  to  keep  the  planters 
busy ;  but  it  will  be  easy  to  keep  these  plants  in  proper  condition  by  plac- 
ing them  in  a  cool  shed,  or  covering  them  with  moist  paper,  or  a  protecting 

96 


Field  Culture   of  Carnations 

sheet.  The  plants  should  be  carried  from  the  shed,  or  greenhouse,  to  the 
field  about  as  fast  as  the  droppers  can  handle  them,  and  the  planters  should 
keep  close  to  the  dropper  with  their  work,  so  that  no  plants  may  He  exposed 
to  the  sun,  to  wither. 

Care  should  always  be  taken  to  plant  carnations  in  freshly  cultivated 
soil,  w7hich  should  be  in  such  a  condition  that  it  will  firm  down  nicely  around 
the  roots.  Planting  should  not  be  done  in  soil  that  is  very  dry,  nor  should 
it  be  done  when  the  soil  is  pasty,  or  in  a  muddy  condition.  If  the  soil  is  in 
proper  condition,  and  the  plants  are  set  without  wilting,  they  will  push  forth 
their  feeding  roots  within  a  day  or  two,  and  growth  will  commence  promptly ; 
but  if  the  soil  lacks  the  proper  degree  of  moisture,  or  if  it  be  too  wet,  or  in 
a  sodden,  muddy  condition,  or  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  wither  and  dry 
out  before  they  are  planted,  the  growth  will  be  checked,  and  the  future  con- 
dition of  the  plant  will  be,  to  that  extent,  impaired. 

It  may  be  repeated  here,  that  nothing  is  gained  by  checking  a  carnation 
plant ;  on  the  contrary,  a  distinct  damage  results.  If  the  best  results  are  to 
be  attained,  a  vigorous,  healthy,  normal  growth  must  be  maintained  through- 
out the  life  of  the  plant. 

Cultivation  After  Planting 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  in  growing  carnations  in  the  field, 
thorough  and  frequent  cultivation  must  be  the  rule.  If  planted  in  beds,  the 
wheel  hoe  should  be  run  over  these  within  a  few  days  after  the  plants  are 
set  out,  certainly  immediately  after  the  first  rain,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
fit  to  work.  This  operation  should  be  followed  up  by  hand  hoeing  and  weed- 
ing, and  the  soil  around  the  neck  of  the  plant  should  be  pulverized  so  that 
the  plant  shall  not  be  buried,  or  its  growth  impaired,  by  the  baking  of  the 
soil  about  the  neck,  or  over  its  roots.  The  wheel  hoe  should  be  run  over 
the  beds  after  each  rain.  Hand  hoeing  should  be  frequent  enough  to  keep 
the  soil  mellow,  and  to  prevent  baking.  Cultivation  should  be  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  soil  in  a  mellow  condition,  especially  the  top  soil.  Some 
cultivate,  or  hoe,  only  when  they  see  weeds  springing  up.  The  best  growers, 
however,  do  not  wait  for  weeds  to  appear,  but  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil 
constantly  stirred  and  pulverized. 

There  is  a  great  advantage  in  having  the  surface  of  the  soil  pulverized 
and  in  a  mellow  condition;  as  such  soil  dries  out  and  forms  a  mulch  over 
the  carnation  roots,  preventing,  to  a  great  extent,  the  evaporation  of  moisture, 
and  largely  confining  such  evaporation  to  the  moisture  that  transpires  from 
the  foliage,  besides  conserving  the  moisture  during  dry  seasons;  whereas, 

7  97 


Field  Culture   of   Carnations 

if  the  soil  is  allowed  to  become  hardened,  evaporation  proceeds  very  rapidly 
from  the  soil  itself,  and  plants  will  soon  suffer  from  drought. 

Where  plants  are  set  in  rows,  for  the  purpose  of  horse  cultivation,  the 
cultivator  should  be  run  between  the  rows  within  a  few  days  after  the  plants 
are  set.  This  should  be  followed  up  by  hand  hoeing  and  weeding,  and  pul- 
verizing the  soil  around  the  neck  of  the  plant.  The  horse  hoe  should  be 
used  at  least  once  in  every  two  weeks,  and,  as  a  rule,  after  each  rain ;  while 
hand  hoeing  should  be  practiced  frequently  enough  to  keep  the  soil  pulver- 
ized. No  weeds  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to  any  size  in  the  carnation  field, 
but  frequent  cultivation  should  be  attended  to,  so  as  to  effectually  keep  down 
all  weeds. 

Cultivation  around  the  plants  should  be  shallow  and  not  deep.  The  horse 
hoe  should  be  one  with  small  teeth,  that  will  pulverize  the  soil  finely,  but  will 
not  run  sufficiently  deep  to  tear  up  or  destroy  the  roots.  The  workmen  should 
be  watched  when  hoeing,  and  carefully  instructed  not  to  injure  the  neck 
of  the  plant  by  striking  it  with  the  hoe,  nor  to  injure  the  roots  of  the  plant 
by  digging  too  deeply  into  the  soil.  Half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  depth  is  suffi- 
cient stirring  for  carnations. 

There  is  quite  a  divergence  of  opinion  among  different  growers  as  to 
the  advantages  of  horse  cultivation  compared  with  hand  cultivation.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  see  any  great  difference  between  the  two  methods,  except- 
ing, possibly,  a  slight  gain  in  economy  with  horse  cultivation  where  an  abund- 
ance of  land  is  available.  So  far  as  I  have  observed,  just  as  good  carnation 
plants  may  be  grown  by  either  method,  and  a  selection  between  the  two  sim- 
mers itself  down  to  the  quantity  of  ground  the  grower  may  have  available.  If 
he  is  limited  as  to  land  area,  he  should  plant  in  beds,  and  practice  hand 
cultivation ;  but  if  an  abundance  of  land  is  available,  he  can  well  afford  to 
practice  horse  cultivation. 

Stopping  Carnations  in  the  Field 

As  soon  as  the  carnation  plants  have  become  thoroughly  established, 
and  have  commenced  their  season's  growth,  flowering  shoots  will  be  pushed 
up,  and  these  will  soon  form  buds  and  blooms  unless  broken  off.  If  it  is 
desired  to  have  crops  of  flowers  during  the  winter  time,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  cut  off  these  flowering  shoots  as  fast  as  the  buds  have  become  well  formed. 
It  is  desirable  not  to  break  off  these  shoots  until  the  bud  is  in  the  condition 
named.  Too  close  stopping  is  objectionable,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  dwarf 
the  plant  too  much,  retard  the  crop  of  bloom,  and,  if  followed  very  closely, 
at  wide  periods  may  cause  the  plant  to  bloom  in  crops  instead  of  bringing 

98 


Field  Culture  of   Carnations 

about  a  continuous  blooming  throughout  the  season.  In  order  to  secure  a 
continuous  crop  of  flowers  during  the  winter  season,  the  field  should  be  gone 
over  every  two  weeks,  and  preferably  every  week,  and  all  shoots  that  are  in 
proper  condition  for  stopping  broken  off. 

If  the  field  stopping  of  carnations  is  followed  up  persistently,  and  the 


a — Plant  stopped  once  and  ready  for  second  stopping ;  cut  shoots  at  \ 
h — Plant  stopped  twice  and  ready  for  third  stopping;  cut  shoots  at  \ 
c — Plant  coming-  into  bloom  after  third  stopping 


shoots  cut  back  at  the  proper  period,  and  when  in  the  proper  condition,  this 

will  insure  the  continuous  blooming  of  most  varieties  throughout  the  winter. 

As  a  rule,  all  cutting  back  in  the  field  should  cease  by  the  first  to  the 


99 


Field  Culture  of   Carnations 

middle  of  August,  according  to  the  variety.  Many  carnations  should  not  be 
cut  back  after  the  ist  of  August,  and  some  varieties  must  not  be  cut  back 
after  the  middle  of  July,  otherwise  the  crop  of  bloom  may  be  deferred  into 
midwinter,  and  sometimes  into  the  following  spring.  There  are,  however, 
a  few  kinds  that  may  be  cut  back  as  late  as  the  ist  of  September  without 
interfering  with  their  blooming  at  or  before  Christmas  time.  Each  variety 
must  be  carefully  studied,  and  the  season  at  which  cutting  back  is  to  cease 
must  be  ascertained  by  practical  experience. 

By  properly  following  up  the  cutting  back  of  any  variety  of  carnation, 
coupled  with  planting  it  upon  the  benches  at  its  proper  season,  most  mod- 
ern carnations  can  be  induced  to  produce  a  crop  of  flowers  that  will  last,  to 
a  large  extent,  throughout  the  winter  season.  But  if  this  cutting  back  is 
not  correctly  done,  or  is  not  done  at  the  right  time,  the  winter  blooming 
may  be  seriously  interfered  with,  and  the  crop  of  flowers  obtained  at  a  period 
when  they  are  least  wanted. 

Before  closing  this  chapter,  I  would  impress  upon  my  readers  the  im- 
portance of  thorough,  clean  cultivation  during  the  summer  time,  and  of  keep- 
ing the  plants  in  a  healthy,  continuous  growing  condition.  The  success  of 
securing  a  continuous  crop  of  flowers  during  the  winter  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  condition  of  the  plants  when  planted  upon  the  benches.  If  the 
plant  has  made  a  strong,  vigorous  growth  during  the  summer  time,  it  will 
have  stored  up  a  large  quantity  of  energy  which  can  be  successfully  called 
upon  during  the  winter  time.  But  if  the  plant  has  not  been  properly  treated, 
if  it  has  been  subjected  to  serious  checks,  such  as  droughts,  lack  of  proper 
cultivation,  or  grown  among  rank  weeds,  where  it  has  had  to  struggle  for 
an  existence,  its  constitution  will  be  impaired,  and  it  will  enter  the  trying 
season  of  winter  with  strength  insufficient  to  respond  to  the  draughts  which 
are  made  upon  it  in  forcing.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that  first-class 
results  can  only  be  expected  from  first-class  plants ;  and  first-class  plants  can 
only  be  produced  by  thorough,  proper  attention  to  all  of  the  details  con- 
nected with  the  growing  of  the  plants,  from  the  selection  of  the  wood  for 
propagating  purposes,  down  to  the  time  that  the  plants  are  placed  upon 
the  bench,  as  well  as  after  being  planted  in  the  greenhouses.  This  thorough 
care  as  to  the  needs  of  the  plant  must  not  be  at  any  time  withheld.  Many 
growers  will  tell  you  that  they  have  good  or  poor  luck  growing  carnations.  I 
am  not  such  a  believer  in  the  theory  of  luck  as  many,  being  rather  of  the  opinion 
that  this  element  of  luck  is  largely  controlled  by  the  grower  himself.  If  he 

100 


Field  Culture  of   Carnations 

neglects  to  give  his  carnations  proper  care  at  some  particular  time,  it  is 
easier  to  charge  the  resulting  failure  to  "luck"  than  it  is  to  blame  himself 
for  such  failure.  Success  can  only  be  secured  by  thorough,  careful,  con- 
stant attention  to  detail.  Good  luck  smiles  upon  the  careful,  thorough  grower. 
Bad  luck  is  the  Nemesis  of  the  careless  cultivator. 


Enchantress  (P.  Fisher) 


101 


CHAPTER  IX 

Lifting  and  Planting  Carnations  from  the  Field 

THE  proper  time  for  lifting  carnations  from  the  field,  and  planting  under 
glass,    will   vary   with   the   varying   climatic   conditions    in    different 
localities,  so  that  each  individual  grower  must  decide  by  practical  ex- 
periment at  which  time  the  work  can  be  most  favorably  done  in  his  locality. 
In  some  places  lifting  is  commenced  as  early  as  the  middle  of  July,  while  in 
other  sections,  according  to  the  varying  climatic  conditions  existing  through- 
out the  United  States,  the  operation  is  extended  to  as  late  as  October  I.    In 
the  latitude  of  New  York,  from  the  loth  of  July  to  the  ist  of  September 
may  be  taken  as  the  average  time  for  lifting,  and  planting  under  glass. 

Filling  the  Benches 

Granted  that  the  soil  heaps  are  in  proper  condition  (see  Preparation  of 
Soil,  Chapter  IX.),  it  will  be  of  considerable  benefit  to  turn  over  the  soil  once 
again,  about  a  week  or  ten  days  before  the  benches  are  to  be  filled.  Where  a 
small  area  of  bench  surface  is  to  be  filled,  the  soil  may  be  carried  into  the 
greenhouses  in  light  baskets,  or  small  boxes  fitted  with  handles.  But  where 
the  quantity  of  soil  to  be  handled  is  large,  much  time  will  be  gained  by  using 
larger  boxes  or  baskets,  or  wheelbarrows. 

Planks  are  rigged  up,  running  from  the  soil  heap  through  the  door  at 
the  end  of  the  houses,  and  on  to  and  down  the  center  bench.  A  parallel  plank- 
is  laid  about  every  twenty-five  feet,  to  form  a  turn-out,  so  that  the  wheelers 
may  pass  each  other.  The  accompanying  illustration  of  filling  the  green- 
houses shows  the  method  of  arranging  the  planking  on  the  benches.  Three 
to  four  men  are  employed  with  wheelbarrows,  and  one  man  is  stationed  at 
the  soil  pile  with  a  shovel,  to  help  fill  the  empty  barrows  as  they  return.  An 
additional  shovel  enables  each  wheeler  to  assist  in  filling  his  own  barrow. 
Two  men  are  placed  at  the  bench  where  the  soil  is  being  dumped.  Each 
of  these  men  has  a  shovel,  and  as  fast  as  dumped  the  soil  is  turned  over  and 
thrown  back,  filling  the  bench  evenly  and  firming  down  the  soil,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  holes,  or  soft  spots,  and  the  soil  will  be  of  an  even  density 


102 


Lifting  and  Planting  Carnations  from  the  Field 

throughout  the  bench.  The  firming  is  of  considerable  importance,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  light  soils,  especially  when  it  comes  to  watering,  whether  by 
the  surface  or  sub-irrigation  system.  If  the  soil  is  of  the  same  degree  of 
compactness  throughout,  it  will  take  up  the  moisture  equally,  and  there  will 
be  neither  sodden  nor  dried-out  spots  in  the  bench  as  would  result  were  some 


Soil  Sterilizer  in  Position— Filling  the  Bench 

spots  dense  enough  to  hold  the  moisture  and  became  sour  and  sodden,  and 
others  so  loose  and  open  as  to  dry  out  rapidly,  causing  the  contiguous  plants 
to  suffer  from  drought.  With  light  soils  it  is  often  necessary  to  get  upon  the 
bench  and  tramp  down  the  soil,  in  order  to  have  it  sufficiently  compact,  and  of 
an  even  consistency  throughout. 

103 


Lifting  and  Planting  Carnations  from  the  Field 
Marking  Out  the  Bench 

When  the  soil  is  ready  for  planting,  it  should  be  in  a  moist,  mellow 
condition,  so  that  the  planter  can  easily  dig  holes  in  it  with  his  hand.  In 
preparing  to  plant,  regular  lines,  running  the  full  length  of  the  bench,  and 
spaced  at  even  distances  should  be  marked.  Cross  lines  should  also  be 
marked,  so  that  when  setting  out,  the  planter  will  only  need  to  set  plants 
at  the  intersection  of  the  different  lines  in  order  to  have  all  stand  in  straight 
rows,  evenly  spaced.  This  is  important  and  necessary,  so  as  to  enable  one 
to  properly  apply  the  wire  supports  when  the  plants  push  up  their  bloom- 
ing shoots. 

The  benches  thoroughly  prepared,  and  the  rows  all  marked  out,  and  ready 
for  setting,  the  next  step  to  be  considered  will  be 

Digging  the  Plants  from  the  Field 

This  work  should  be  very  carefully  done  by  a  workman  of  sufficient 
intelligence  and  knowledge  of  carnations,  to  enable  him  to  select  plants  of 
even  size  and  growth,  so  that  when  the  benches  are  filled  they  will  produce 
an  equal  crop  throughout  the  entire  surface.  In  digging  the  plants,  all 
the  roots  possible  must  be  preserved,  especially  the  smaller  fibrous  roots. 
The  best  tool  with  which  to  dig  carnations  is  the  ordinary  digging  fork 
having  four  or  five  flat  tines  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide,  these  tines 
standing  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  apart. 

In  selecting  plants  it  is  well  to  go  over  the  field  and  select  all  of  the 
larger  ones  that  run  of  an  even  size;  then  go  over  the  field  a  second  time 
and  select  a  size  smaller,  which  will  still  fill  the  spaces  fully.  If  you  have 
not  sufficient  plants  of  these  two  sizes  to  fill  the  entire  bench  surface,  it  will" 
then  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  field  a  third  time  and  select  plants  which 
can  be  doubled  up ;  that  is,  two  plants  set  as  one.  By  such  selection  and 
doubling  up  of  plants  an  even  stand  of  bloom  may  be  secured  throughout  the 
entire  house. 

After  the  plants  are  dug,  they  should  be  taken  immediately  under  shel- 
ter, and  not  allowed  to  become  wilted  or  the  roots  permitted  to  dry  out,  before 
planting.  Too  many  plants  must  not  be  taken  up  ahead,  as  it  is  injurious 
to  have  plants  lying  around  with  the  roots  exposed  to  the  wind,  sun,  or  dry- 
ing air.  But  the  plants  should  be  dug  from  the  field  and  carried  into  the 
houses  only  as  fast  as  they  can  be  planted,  and  no  great  accumulation  of  dug 
plants  should  be  allowed,  either  in  the  field  or  the  greenhouses,  unless  it 
should  be  necessary  to  dig  a  large  number  prior  to  a  rainy-day  planting.  If 

105 


Lifting  and  Planting  Carnations  from  the  Field 

plants  are  allowed  to  stand  around  any  length  of  time,  or  if  shipped  in  from 
a  distance,  it  is  well  to  freshen  them  up  by  dipping  the  roots  in  water,  and 
to  moisten  the  tops,  to  prevent  wilting. 

In  planting  under  glass,  the  same  care  not  to  plant  too  deep  must  be 
used  as  in  planting  in  the  field.  The  neck  of  the  plant  should  stand  just 
at  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  not  to  exceed  a  quarter  of  an  inch  below.  Make 


The  same  Carnation  Field— Photograph  taken  ten  minutes  after  digging 

was  commenced 

a  shallow,  saucer-shaped  hole  in  the  soil,  at  the  intersection  of  the  marks,  of 
sufficient  depth  to  nicely  hold  the  entire  root  system ;  then  arrange  the  roots 
therein  in  the  same  relative  position  that  they  occupied  when  growing  in 
the  field,  spreading  them  out  in  a  natural  manner.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  the  roots  be  rolled  up,  or  twisted  into  a  ball  or  wad.  Place  the  plant 
upright,  holding  it  with  the  left  hand,  and  with  the  right  hand  work  the 

107 


Lifting  and  Planting  Carnations  from  the  Field 

soil  around  the  roots  until  they  are  completely  covered ;  then  thoroughly  firm 
the  soil  upon  the  roots,  finishing  up  with  a  light  pounding  with  the  fist  to  com- 
pact the  soil ;  at  the  end,  working  loose  soil  all  around  over  the  top,  so  that 
while  the  roots  of  the  plant  are  so  firmly  held  by  the  compact  soil  under- 
neath that  the  plant  will  stand  erect,  the  surface  is  mellow,  and  in  a  condition 
to  form  a  dry  mulch,  which  has  been  described  in  Field  Culture.  (See 
Chapter  VIII.) 

After  the  plants  have  been  set,  the  next  step  is 

Watering 

Usually  there  are  two  planters  in  a  gang,  one  at  each  side  of  the  bench ; 
and  as  soon  as  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  of  bench  has  been  planted,  the  head 
planter  takes  the  hose,  and  with  a  fine  rose  syringes  the  bench  lightly  and 
evenly,  sufficient  to  wet  the  entire  surface.  Some  growers  recommend  soak- 
ing the  bench  through  at  once,  pouring  on  the  water  so  liberally  that  it  will 
run  through  the  soil  and  drip  from  the  bottom  of  the  bench.  This  method 
we  have  not  found  advantageous,  but  prefer  to  give  several  light  waterings 
during  the  course  of  the  day  until  the  moisture  has  penetrated  through  to  the 
bottom  of  the  bench,  and  the  soil  has  become  moistened  throughout  in  a 
natural  manner,  similar  to  what  occurs  in  the  open  ground  when  a  gentle 
rain  is  falling. 

Any  close  observer  of  soils  will  have  noted  that  in  seasons  where  very 
rapid,  heavy  rainfalls  occur,  when  the  ground  becomes  compacted  and  satu- 
rated for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  many  kinds  of  vegetation  suffer,  and 
many  varieties  of  plants  are  attacked  with  the  species  of  fungus  known  as 
stem  rot.  For  instance,  cabbages  and  cauliflowers  will  rot  oft"  at  the  neck  and 
large  areas  of  these  plants  be  destroyed.  Muskmelons,  squashes  and  pump- 
kins will  rot  before  they  are  ripened.  Many  hardy  plants,  such  as  Sweet 
William,  Goldenrod,  Perennial  Phlox,  and  even  herbaceous  Peonies,  will  rot 
off  at  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Carnations  are  also  seriously  affected  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  rotting  of  plants,  under  such  conditions,  should  give 
the  carnation  grower  a  broad  hint  as  to  the  undesirability  of  soaking  his 
benches  until  they  are  in  a  muddy,  saturated  condition. 

Many  growers  will  probably  have  observed  that  when  carnations  are 
planted  in  the  field,  and  the  planting  is  followed  by  a  gentle  rain,  extending 
perhaps  over  night,  and  falling  so  gently  as  not  to  compact  the  soil,  but 
simply  to  moisten  it  throughout,  the  plants  start  immediately  into  growth 
without  noticeable  check.  But  where  such  planting  out  is  followed  by  heavy 
beating  showers,  the  plants  are  injured  by  the  excess  of  moisture  and  the 

108 


Lifting  and  Planting  Carnations  from  the  Field 

packing  of  the  soil  about  the  roots  and  neck.  Carnation  soil  should  be  at  all 
times  in  just  a  nicely  moistened  condition;  that  is  to  say,  there  should  be 
sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  to  keep  the  plants  plump,  and  in  vigorous  grow- 
ing condition ;  but  there  should  never  be  an  excess  of  water  to  drown  out 
the  soil  or  to  cause  it  to  become  sodden  or  sour.  In  order  to  get  the  best 
possible  results,  what  might  be  termed  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  soil 
should  be  thoroughly  looked  after  and  maintained. 


Setting  Carnation  Plants  on  the  Bench 


Shading  the  Carnation  Houses  Before  Planting 

One  of  the  necessary  preliminary  steps  in  lifting  and  planting  in  is 
shading,  as  it  is  desirable  to  protect  the  freshly  planted  plants  from  the  rays 
of  the  sun  until  they  have  had  time  to  strike  root  and  commence  growth ; 
otherwise  the  plants  will  be  seriously  checked  by  wilting.  A  too  dense  shade, 
however,  is  not  desirable,  as  that  has  a  tendency  to  soften  the  plant  and  to 
cause  it  to  receive  an  additional  check  when  the  shade  is  removed.  Prob- 
ably the  best  shade  is  one  that  can  be  easily  removed  during  the  dark  weather, 
as  the  shade  should  not  be  kept  on  too  long.  When  the  weather  is  cloudy, 
and  the  sun  is  not  shining,  no  shade  will  be  necessary ;  but  as  soon  as  the  sun 

109 


Lifting  and  Planting  Carnations  from  the  Field 

comes  out  bright,  shading  again  becomes  desirable.  One  method  of  shading 
is  to  mix  fire  clay,  or  any  clean  clay,  to  the  consistency  of  thin  paint,  and 
spray  this  over  the  glass  with  an  ordinary  greenhouse  syringe.  This  mixture 
is  easily  removed  by  the  first  rainstorm,  and  may  be  quickly  re-applied, 
if  desired.  To  those  who  wish  a  comparatively  permanent  shade,  the  glass 
may  be  striped,  using  a  mixture  of  white  lead  and  kerosene  oil,  or  naphtha, 
prepared  as  follows :  Two  pounds  in  weight  of  kerosene  to  one  pound  of 
white  lead.  Put  on  the  glass  in  stripes  three  to  five  inches  wide,  leaving  from 
two  to  three  inches  of  clear  glass  between  each  stripe  and  the  sash  bars ; 
this  provides  a  very  nice  shade,  which  may  be  left  upon  the  houses  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time.  It  also  can  be  taken  off  easily  by  rubbing  with  a 
dry,  stiff  brush.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  sufficiently  well  established  to 
begin  active  growth,  the  shade  should  be  gradually  removed.  The  glass 
should  be  in  a  clean,  bright  condition  early  in  the  month  of  October,  and  abso- 
lutely clean  by  the  ist  of  November,  excepting,  possibly,  in  the  Southern 
States,  where  the  sun  is  still  sufficiently  hot  at  that  season  to  injure  the  plants 
or  cause  the  blooms  to  fade. 


Viola   Allen 


CHAPTER  X 

Treatment  After  Benching  and  Until  the  Plants  Are 

in  Bloom 

FOR  the  first  week  after  planting,  ventilation  should  be  given  sparingly, 
and  with  judgment,  keeping  a  moist  atmosphere,  and  avoiding  drying 
draughts.     A  gentle  syringing  once  or  twice  a  day,  just  sufficient  to 
freshen  up  the  foliage  and  prevent  wilting,  should  be  applied,  but  no  heavy 
wetting  of  the  soil  should  be  done  until  root  action  has  been  established.    As 
root  action  sets  in,  and  the  foliage  straightens  up,  and  becomes  plump  and 
crisp,,  ventilation  should  be  increased  and  watering  attended  to  as  the  plant 
needs  moisture. 

When  the  plants  have  become  well  established,  and  the  bench  soils  fairly 
well  filled  with  roots,  the  plants  must  be  straightened  up  so  that  all  of  the 
shoots  will  stand  erect.  About  this  time  weeds  will  begin  to  sprout,  and  the 
surface  soil  should  be  lightly  cultivated  or  scratched  over,  and  all  weeds 
removed  and  destroyed. 

Staking  or  Wiring 

As  soon  as  the  growths  commence  straightening  out,  or  elongating  to- 
ward the  bud  formation,  it  is  important  that  support  be  given  promptly.  This 
should  be  done  before  the  blooming  shoots  start  to  run  up.  I  would  impress 
upon  the  reader  the  importance  of  providing  support  for  his  carnations  early, 
otherwise  the  growths,  if  left  for  any  considerable  time  without  support,  will 
run  up,  lop  over,  and  fall  down,  causing  the  stems  to  become  crooked,  which 
is  detrimental  to  the  flower,  injuring  its  usefulness  and  reducing  its  selling 
value.  If  the  young  plants  are  properly  supported,  and  the  body  of  the  plants 
held  erect,  they  will  grow  straight  and  sturdy,  producing  long,  straight- 
stemmed  blooms ;  but  if  not  so  supported,  and  allowed  to  fall  down  and  be- 
come crooked,  the  entire  plant  will  grow  out  of  shape,  and  it  can  seldom 
be  restored  to  as  good  condition  as  when  properly  supported  from  the  start. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  of  supporting  carnations,  each  of  which 
has  its  votaries,  who  prefer  it  to  others  in  use ;  but  all  of  these  methods  may 


in 


Treatment  After  Benching 


be  divided  into  three  general  classes.  The  first,  which  may  be  called  staking, 
consists  of  driving  a  stout  wooden  stake  alongside  of  the  plant,  which  is  then 
supported  by  being  tied  to  this  stake,  either  with  raffia  or  twine.  This  system 


Illustrating  Wire  Ring  Supports 

of  support  is,  however,  seldom  used  at  the  present  time.  The  methods  now 
most  employed  are  known  as  wiring.  That  most  generally  in  force  is  a 
round-wire  support  upon  legs ;  it  is  made  in  several  forms,  and  offered  for 
sale  by  various  manufacturers.  Several  of  these  forms  have  been  patented, 

I  12 


Treatment  After  Benching 

and  most  of  them  may  be  purchased  at  prices  ranging  from  $12  to  $25  per 
thousand.  They  are  made  of  strong,  galvanized  wire,  and  will  last  for  a 
number  of  years. 

The  second  method  of  wiring  consists  of  stretching  wires  over  the  bench, 
as  is  shown  in  the  engraving.  These  wires  are  extended  tightly  the  full 
length,  and  fastened  to  a  framework  upon  each  end  of  the  bench. 


Illustrating  End  Supports  of  Iron  for  Stretching  Wire 

Supports  are  provided  at  about  every  twenty-five  feet  throughout  the 
length  of  the  bench,  and  stay  laths  are  put  crosswise  every  ten  feet  in  order  to 
hold  the  wires  a  proper  distance  apart.  A  wire  is  stretched  on  the  outside  of 
the  row  of  plants  and  also  between  each  row.  Ordinary  twine  is  used  for 
the  cross  tying.  A  man  stands  on  each  side  of  the  bench,  and  the  two  tie 
the  strings  across,  taking  a  wrap  and  half  hitch  around  each  wire  so  that 

8  "3 


Treatment  After  Benching 

the  strings  will  not  slip  up  and  down  the  wires.  Two  strings  are  used  be- 
tween each  plant,  so  that  when  the  wiring  and  tying  is  finished  each  plant 
is  held  by  itself  in  a  square  composed  of  wire  and  twine.  This  wiring  is 
put  on  in  several  tiers,  from  two  to  three  being  used  with  average  grow- 
ing plants. 

A  combination  of  the  two  systems  just  described  has  been  adopted  by 
many  of  the  most  successful  growers,  and  it  seems  to  be  nearly  a  perfect 
system  of  supporting  carnation  plants.  A  round  wire  circle  having  three 
legs  is  used  to  support  the  base  of  the  plant.  It  stands  about  three  inches 
above  the  ground,  and  holds  the  base  of  the  plant  firmly.  Six  inches  above 
this,  and  then  again  six  inches  above  that,  and  still  ten  to  twelve  inches 
higher,  if  necessary,  the  wire  and  string  supports  are  stretched,  so  that  the 
carnation  plants  are  supported  their  entire  height,  and  will  grow  perfectly 
erect  in  the  little  squares  provided  for  them.  It  is  not  necessary  nor  desirable 
to  put  on  all  of  these  supports  at  one  time,  but  the  wiring  should  be  added  as 
the  plants  grow  upward  and  need  support.  However,  these  supports  must 
be  put  on  at  the  proper  time,  as  it  is  important  to  keep  the  young  shoots  con- 
stantly growing  upward  and  straight,  and  not  allow  them  to  fall  over  and 
lop  about. 

Another  system  of  supporting  carnations  is  the  V-shaped  wire  netting, 
supplemented  by  stretching  the  wires  and  string  overhead.  This  method  is 
shown  in  the  adjoining  cut,  which  illustrates  it  very  well.  This  is  an 
excellent  method  of  supporting  carnations,  and  has  the  advantage  of  per- 
mitting the  plantsman  to  work  between  the  rows  without  striking  or  injuring 
the  plants.  With  varieties  that  are  very  heavy  growers,  however,  it  has  a 
tendency  to  compress  the  plants  a  little  too  much  at  the  base.  The  netting 
is  also  expensive,  and  since  the  advance  in  the  cost  of  wire  it  has  been 
abandoned,  both  on  the  score  of  expense,  and  also  for  the  reason  that  the 
system  of  round  wire  supports,  combined  with  wires  and  string,  is  consid- 
ered better.  Anyone,  however,  having  the  netting  on  hand  would  be  able 
by  it  to  support  his  carnations  to  good  advantage. 

Cultivation  of  Soil  on  Benches 

As  the  season  advances  weeds  will  grow  up  among  the  plants,  and  with 
surface-watered  benches  the  surface  of  the  soil  will  become  packed  and 
hard.  These  weeds  should  be  removed  when  young,  and  the  hard  crust  be 
broken  up  by  very  shallow  cultivation.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
cultivation  be  deep,  as  the  root  system  of  a  plant  extends  to  the  surface  of 

114 


Treatment  After  Benching 

the  soil,  and  if  deep  cultivation  is  practiced  the  plants  will  be  injured  by 
the  disturbance  of  the  feeding  roots. 

As  soon  as  the  condition  of  the  plants  shows  that  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  plant  food  contained  in  the  soil  is  assimilated,  light  top  dressings  of 
decomposed  manure,  or  sheep  manure,  bone  dust,  soot,  etc.,  may  be  used ;  but 
the  plants  must  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  established  and  in  full,  vig- 
orous growth,  with  normal  root  systems,  before  such  applications  are  given ; 
and  when  feeding  begins,  the  food  should  be  introduced  into  the  soil  no 
more  rapidly  than  the  plants  consume  it. 


Bench  of  Carnation  William  Scott — Illustrating- supporting-  with  wire  netting 

and  wire  and  string 

Properly  prepared  soil  will  be  rich  enough  to  carry  the  plants  from  six 
weeks  to  two  months  after  growth  has  commenced,  without  feeding.  Under 
ordinary  culture,  if  plants  grow  vigorously,  the  soil  will  be  exhausted  to  some 
extent  at  the  end  of  two  and  a  half  or  three  months,  unless  it  has  been  re- 
newed by  feeding  or  mulching.  In  such  case  a  strong  top  dressing  will  be 
required  to  keep  the  plants  in  proper  growing  condition  and  to  supply  them 


Treatment  After  Benching 

with  the  necessary  sustenance  to  maintain  their  growth  and  mature  the  crop 
of  flowers. 

The  most  critical  time  in  carnation  culture  is  during  the  fall  and  early 
winter  months,  when  the  natural  tendency  of  plants  is  to  cease  growth  and 
to  rest.  During  this  period  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  in  watering  the 
benches.  The  soil  should  be  kept  in  a  healthy,  moist  condition,  but  at  no 
period  should  it  be  over-watered.  It  may  dry  out  at  times  so  that  the  surface 
appears  quite  dry,  but  this  condition  should  not  be  allowed  to  continue  any 
great  length  of  time,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  the  soil  be  permitted 
to  become  dry  to  the  bottom  of  the  bench,  nor  the  plants  to  become  wilted 
or  flagged  from  want  of  moisture. 

Ample  provision  should  be  made  for  draining  all  carnation  benches, 
whether  the  style  of  bench  used  be  sub-irrigation  or  surface  watering.  If  the 
benches  are  not  properly  drained,  serious  damage  may  occur  in  case  of  over. 
watering.  Sometimes,  when  a  carnation  bench  has  been  thoroughly  watered, 
after  having  been  allowed  to  dry  out  a  little  to  sweeten  it  up,  the  grower  is 
confronted  with  a  spell  of  dark,  stormy,  chilly  weather,  and  if  he  has  no 
means  whereby  to  dry  out  this  soil  and  remove  the  surplus  moisture,  his 
plants  will  receive  a  check  that  will  be  decidedly  harmful,  and  reduce  the 
value  of  his  crop.  Probably  the  most  important  part  of  the  care  of  carna- 
tions consists  in  proper  watering  in  connection  with  proper  ventilation.  At 
this  period  of  the  year  the  weather  is  constantly  growing  colder ;  long  spells 
of  dull,  dismal  weather  will  occur,  and  the  grower  will  be  constantly  taxed 
in  order  to  keep  his  plants  from  receiving  damage.  A  grower  who  thor- 
oughly understands  the  watering  of  his  plants,  and  who  can  do  the  work 
properly,  and  with  judgment,  has  mastered  one  of  the  most  important  secrets 
of  carnation  growing.  The  art  of  watering  plants  is  purely  a  matter  of  per- 
sonal judgment.  No  definite  rules  for  it  can  be  laid  down,  as  conditions 
are  constantly  varying;  the  requirements  of  the  soil  under  treatment  must 
be  ascertained  by  the  man  who  has  immediate  charge  of  the  growing  plants, 
and  this  can  be  done  only  by  practical  experience  and  daily  observation. 

Disbudding 

After  the  buds  have  set,  and  side  shoots  begin  to  elongate,  disbudding 
should  commence  promptly.  All  buds,  except  the  terminal,  should  be  re- 
moved, unless  that  bud  is  deformed,  in  which  case  the  terminal  should  be 
taken  out  and  the  strongest  lateral  from  the  top  of  the  shoot  allowed  to  grow. 
Disbudding  should  be  commenced  as  soon  as  the  first  buds  are  fairly  well 
formed,  and  when  the  laterals  are  sufficiently  well  advanced,  so  that  they 

116 


Treatment  After  Benching 

can  be  seized  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  and  pinched  out.  Unless 
disbudding  is  done  before  the  lateral  buds  have  swelled  to  any  great  extent, 
it  will  be  of  little  use,  as  the  laterals  will  have  taken  some  considerable  strength 
from  the  terminal  bud,  in  which  case  the  bud  left  will  not  produce  as  large 
a  flower  as  if  the  laterals  had  been  removed  early. 

The  benches  should  be  gone  over  at  least  once  in  two  weeks  and  the  weak 
shoots  cut  back ;  that  is,  those  shoots  that  show  a  tendency  to  produce  small, 
weak-necked  flowers.  The  object  of  this  is  to  throw  the  entire  strength  of 
the  plant  into  strong,  vigorous  growth,  to  the  end  that  a  better  average  quality 
of  blooms  may  be  secured. 

The  time  to  commence  cutting  the  flowers  varies  greatly  with  the  varieties 
grown,  as  well  as  with  the  season  at  which  they  were  planted  inside.  In 
case  the  planting  has  been  done  in  July,  a  few  flowers  may  be  left  on  the 
plants  to  be  cut  in  the  early  part  of  September.  But  more  profitable  results 
may  sometimes  be  obtained  by  cutting  back  the  earliest  flowers,  and  allowing 
new  growths  to  come,  which  will  produce  blooms  for  November,  December, 
and  later  cutting. 


Prosperity 


CHAPTER  XI 

Picking,  Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation  Flowers 

THE  chief  value  of  any  flower  consists  in  its  being  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  consumer  in  a  fresh,  lasting  condition.  This  can  only  be  accom- 
plished by  having  the  blooms  properly  handled  from  the  time  they  are 
cut  from  the  plant  until  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  consuming  purchaser. 
In  order  to  accomplish  this  the  flowers  must  be  picked  when  in  the  proper  con- 
dition, the  stems  immediately  plunged  in  water,  and  the  receptacle  placed  in 
a  cooling  room,  which  should  be  scrupulously  clean,  and  in  which  the  tem- 
perature is  uniformly  carried  at  from  45  to  55  degrees.  The  vases  con- 
taining the  flowers  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  avoid  crowding  or  jam- 
ming the  blooms  together,  and  be  deep  enough  to  hold  at  least  two-thirds  to 
three-fourths  of  the  entire  length  of  the  stem.  These  vases  should  be  kept 
perfectly  clean,  and  should  be  daily  filled  with  fresh  water.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  in  the  vases  may  be  from  10  to  15  degrees  higher  than  the 
temperature  of  the  room  at  the  time  the  flowers  are  put  into  the  vase.  While 
the  temperature  of  the  cooling  room  should  be  from  48  to  50  degrees,  we  have 
found  it  beneficial  when  both  the  water  and  cool  room  stood  at  about  55  to  60 
degrees  when  the  flowers  were  put  in,  and  when  the  morning  pick  was  finished 
the  room  gradually  cooled  down  to  48  to  50  degrees.  The  water,  room 
and  flowers  cooling  down  together,  avoids  the  sudden  chilling  of  the  blooms, 
a  condition  which  sometimes  causes  them  to  wither,  or,  as  the  florist  terms 
it,  "go  to  sleep." 

It  is  more  advantageous  to  pick  carnations  in  the  morning,  while  the 
temperature  is  low,  and  the  flowers  plump  and  firm,  than  to  wait  until  the 
sun  has  become  sufficiently  powerful  to  cause  the  blooms  to  flag.  The  daily 
picking  of  flowers  should  be  finished  by  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  all 
blooms  intended  for  shipment  the  following  day  should  be  in  water  by 
that  time. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion,  as  well  as  in  practice,  regarding  the 
condition  in  which  the  bloom  should  be  when  cut.  Some  of  our  best  grow- 
ers allow  the  flowers  to  stay  upon  the  plant  until  fully  developed,  or,  as  they 
term  it,  finished.  Our  practice  has  been  to  pick  the  flower  when  about  three- 

118 


Picking,   Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation   Flowers 

quarters  developed.  This  point  can  be  generally  ascertained  by  observing  the 
condition  of  the  pistils.  When  the  pistils  have  grown  so  that  they  have 
reached  an  even  length  with  the  center  petals,  the  flower  is,  in  the  case  of 
most  varieties,  about  two-thirds  to  three-quarters  full  blown ;  and  if  picked  at 
that  time  and  placed  in  water,  the  bloom  will  continue  to  develop  for  several 


A   Wholesale  Grower's  Flower  Room 

days ;  whereas,  if  allowed  to  stand  upon  the  plant  until  fully  developed — that 
is,  when  the  pistils  have  completed  their  growth,  and  are  ready  for  fertiliza- 
tion— the  flower  has  reached  its  full  size,  and  there  will  be  no  further  ten- 
dency to  grow.  On  the  contrary,  the  tendency  to  wither  and  go  to  sleep  will 


119 


Picking,  Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation   Flowers 

be  much  stronger  than  with  the  flower  not  fully  developed,  and  the  danger 
of  fertilization  will  be  also  much  greater. 

In  cutting,  a  sharp  knife  should  be  used,  and  the  stem  should  be  cut  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  place  any  strain  upon  the  roots  of  the  plant,  as  this 
has  a  tendency  to  break  the  fine  rootlets  free  from  the  soil  and  to  injure  the 
plant's  growth  and  blooming.  If  the  flowers  are  broken  off,  the  pressure  on 
the  stem  should  be  downward,  and  not  with  an  upward  pull,  which  will  start 
the  plant  from  the  soil. 

As  fast  as  picked  the  flowers  should  be  taken  into  the  flower  room  and 
placed  immediately  in  the  vases,  which  should  have  been  prepared  in  advance 
and  filled  with  pure,  clean  water.  As  soon  as  the  picking  is  finished,  the 
cleaning  and  preparing  and  grading  of  the  flowers  should  be  done.  It  is 
our  practice  to  remove  all  the  foliage,  for  about  six  inches,  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem,  and  to  take  off  the  cuttings  while  sorting  the  flowers  into 
the  different  grades. 

For  the  New  York  market  three  grades  are  made,  namely,  fancies,  extras 
and  firsts.  The  fancies  are  all  perfect  blooms,  running  from  2^4  to  3^ 
inches  in  diameter,  with  straight  stems  from  16  to  24  inches  and  upward  in 
length.  The  extras  are  composed  of  flowers  which,  while  being  perfect,  are 
either  smaller  or  the  stems  below  the  length  required  for  fancies.  The  firsts 
comprise  all  merchantable  blooms  that  will  not  pass  as  extras. 

In  grading  flowers  it  is  important  that  the  grade  should  be  uniform; 
that  is  to  say,  a  fancy  should  be  fancy  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  when  the  plants  first  commence  blooming,  there  are  com- 
paratively few  flowers  that  will  grade  as  strictly  fancy.  Many  of  the  first 
blooms  will  come  imperfect  in  one  or  more  respects,  and  the  stems  will  gen- 
erally be  below  the  necessary  length ;  so  that  at  this  part  of  the  season  but 
two  grades  are  sent  to  market — the  extras  and  firsts — the  fancy  grades 
usually  putting  in  an  appearance  from  a  month  to  six  weeks  later. 

After  the  stems  have  been  properly  cleaned,  and  the  flowers  separated 
into  the  different  grades,  the  blooms  are  divided  into  bundles  of  twenty-five, 
the  stems  of  each  bundle  being  bound  with  a  small  rubber  band.  A  tag  upon 
which  the  name,  the  grade,  and  the  number  of  flowers  are  written,  is  fast- 
ened to  each  bundle.  From  two  to  four  of  these  bundles  are  put  into  a  vase, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  blooms,  as  well  as  that  of  the  vase,  and  these  are 
placed  upon  a  table,  in  a  cool  room,  with  sufficient  space  around  each  vase 
to  admit  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  about  the  flowers  and  to  prevent  them 
from  rubbing  together  and  bruising.  The  blooms  remain  in  this  cool  room 
until  the  following  morning,  at  which  time  they  will  have  absorbed  sufficient 


1 20 


Picking,   Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation   Flowers 

water  to  have  stiffened  the  foliage  and  petals,  so  that  the  blooms  are  fre- 
quently a  third  larger  than  when  first  put  in  the  cool  room.  At  this  time 
they  will  be  ready  for  shipment,  and  if  properly  packed  and  handled,  will 
reach  the  stores  in  the  best  possible  condition. 

One  of  the  things  to  be  avoided  in  picking  carnations  is  to  allow  the 
flowers  to  lie  around  until  they  have  become  slightly  wilted,  or  until  the 
end  of  the  stem  has  become  seared  to  such  a  degree  that  it  will  not  take  up 
water  readily.  I  would  especially  emphasize  the  importance  of  getting  the 
flower  stems  into  water  as  soon  after  they  are  severed  from  the  plant  as 


Bunch  of  Carnations  with  Name  Tag 

may  be  possible.  It  is  probable  that  many  of  the  complaints  regarding  flowers 
going  to  sleep  in  the  hands  of  storekeepers  and  consumers  are  due  to  im- 
proper usage,  either  at  the  greenhouses,  before  packing,  in  the  commission 
house,  or  in  the  hands  of  the  storekeeper.  Carnations  that  are  taken  from 
the  plants  in  the  afternoon,  upon  a  hot,  bright  or  windy  day,  when  the  plant 
as  well  as  the  flower  is  in  a  somewhat  wilted,  flabby  condition,  and  placed 


121 


Picking,   Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation   Flowers 

in  a  warm  room  and  allowed  to  lie  around  half  an  hour  or  so  before  being  put 
in  water,  are  almost  certain  to  wither  and  fade  many  hours  before  they  would 
if  picked  at  the  proper  time  and  treated  properly. 

Also,  if  blooms  are  taken  from  a  warm  greenhouse,  plunged  in  ice-cold 
water  and  placed  in  a  room  a  little  above  the  freezing  point,  they  are  liable 
to  become  chilled,  and  to  wither  and  shrivel  up  long  before  a  properly  han- 
dled carnation  should  show  any  signs  of  decadence.  This  is  probably  due  to 
the  sudden  chill  which  the  flower  receives  in  the  transmission  from  its  warm 
quarters  to  the  refrigerator.  I  am  satisfied  that  in  many  stores  flowers  are 
frequently  injured  by  being  placed  in  ice  boxes  and  carried  at  a  too  low 
temperature. 

Carnation  flowers  may  also  be  injured  by  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, or  by  exposing  them  to  an  atmosphere  charged  with  noxious  gases. 
The  various  gases  which  pervade  a  large  city  seem  to  be  very  destructive  to 
the  keeping  qualities  of  carnations.  In  some  instances,  the  cellars  of  florists' 
stores  have  been  so  permeated  with  gases  leaking  from  the  soil  and  surround- 
ing mains,  and  various  openings  into  the  cellars,  that  carnation  flowers  would 
wither  and  fade  away  within  a  few  hours  after  being  placed  therein.  No  flower 
grown  enjoys  a  pure,  clean,  dry  atmosphere  more  than  does  the  carnation. 
The  blooms  should  not  be  exposed  to  extremes  of  any  kind,  at  any  period 
of  their  growth,  or  of  their  transmission  from  the  grower  to  the  consumer, 
and  the  more  even  the  temperature  at  which  the  consumer  keeps  the  flowers, 
the  longer  will  they  last,  and  the  more  valuable  will  they  be. 

In  shipping  carnations  upon  the  New  York  market  there  are  two  methods 
practiced,  which  may  be  termed 

The  Bunch  Method  and  the  Box  Method 

The  bunch  method  is  the  oldest,  and,  even  at  the  present  time,  probably 
the  most  practiced  of  any  of  the  methods  of  shipping  in  vogue.  It  consists 
of  tying  the  flowers  into  bunches  of  25,  50  or  100,  and  packing  into  large 
cases  lined  with  paper,  and  also  wrapped  in  paper  during  the  colder  weather, 
in  order  to  prevent  freezing.  Each  bunch  should  have  a  card  upon  which 
the  name,  quality  and  number  of  flowers  are  written.  While  this  is  the 
cheapest  method,  it  is  also  the  hardest  upon  the  flowers,  as  they  are  always 
more  or  less  bruised  by  being  packed  in  the  bunches,  and  by  the  rubbing 
of  the  blooms  against  each  other;  further  injury  occurs  in  the  stores,  and 
especially  in  the  commission  houses,  from  buyers  handling  the  bunches  and 
throwing  them  about. 

The  box  method.     The  finest  carnations  shipped  upon  the  market  are 

122 


Picking,   Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation   Flowers 

treated  by  what  is  known  as  the  box  method ;  that  is,  the  blooms  are  packed 
singly,  in  layers,  in  shallow  pasteboard  boxes  which  are  lined  with  soft 
paper,  generally  thin  wax  tissue  paper.  These  boxes  are  made  of  various 
widths  and  lengths,  in  order  to  accommodate  the  size  of  bloom  and  length  of 
stem,  and  will  hold  from  50  to  100  flowers.  They  range  from  10  to  12  inches 
in  width,  and  36  to  42  inches  in  length,  with  an  average  depth  of  four  inches. 


A  case  of  Carnation  Blooms  packed  for  shipment  to  market 
Illustrating  the  Box  Method 

A  box  12  inches  wide  and  40  inches  long  will  hold  from  50  to  75  of  the 
finest  fancy  carnations,  and  about  25  to  30  per  cent,  more  of  the  grade 
known  as  extras. 

While  the  box  method  is  much  more  expensive  than  the  other,  as  it 
includes  the  cost  of  the  boxes,  as  well  as  the  case  in  which  the  pasteboard 
boxes  are  packed,  and  also  necessitates  longer  time  and  considerably  more 

123 


Picking,   Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation   Flowers 

labor  in  the  process  of  packing,  the  blooms  will  arrive  upon  the  market  in 
a  substantially  better  condition,  and  will  generally  sell  for  a  price  sufficiently 
advanced  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  boxes  and  extra  labor.  These  pasteboard 
boxes  are  packed  in  cases  containing  from  10  to  15  boxes.  The  cases  are 
made  of  light  half-inch  pine,  strongly  put  together,  and  braced  so  that  they 
will  stand  a  number  of  trips  to  the  city  and  return,  as  the  express  companies 
return  all  empties  to  the  shipper,  either  free,  or  for  a  very  slight  charge.  An 


Interior  of  a  Wholesale  Florist's  Store  in  New  York  City 

allowance  is  made  to  the  storekeeper  for  the  return  of  the  pasteboard  boxes, 
and  quite  a  proportion  of  these  boxes  are  returned,  and  are  used  over  again, 
although  of  late  years  an  increasing  percentage  of  these  are  sold  to  go  with 
the  flowers.  Upon  the  lid  of  each  box  a  label  is  pasted  showing  names,  num- 
ber and  quality  of  the  flowers  contained  in  the  box. 


124 


Picking,  Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation   Flowers 

The  blooms  are  packed  in  the  early  morning,  usually  between  four  and 
six  o'clock,  and  are  generally  sold  and  distributed  among  the  various  retail 
stores  by  ten  o'clock  of  the  same  morning,  so  that  the  carnation  flower,  which 
is  cut  from  the  plant  on  any  given  morning,  is  in  the  storekeeper's  window, 
or  cool  room,  by  ten  o'clock  of  the  following  day,  and  probably  in  the  hands 
of  the  consumer,  when  its  real  use  may  be  said  to  have  commenced,  by  three 
to  six  o'clock  of  the  same  day. 

Many  persons  have  the  idea  that  flowers  freshly  cut  from  the  plant 
will  keep  the  best.  They  frequently  come  to  the  florist  with  the  request 
that  blooms  be  picked  direct  from  the  plants  as  an  assurance  of  their  fresh- 
ness, and  carry  the  blooms  away,  with  the  mistaken  impression  that  such 
flowers  will  keep  better  than  those  that  have  been  picked  and  treated  to 
the  proper  curing  process.  While  such  blooms  frequently  will  last  longer 
than  many  of  the  flowers  purchased  from  the  stores,  it  does  not  follow 
that  it  is  the  best  method  of  treating  the  carnation  flower.  If  such  flowers 
can  be  placed  at  once  in  water,  in  a  cool  room,  even  for  an  hour  only,  then 
properly  packed  in  a  suitable  box  for  carriage,  they  will  keep  much  better 
than  when  taken  directly  from  the  plants  to  the  purchaser's  residence. 

During  the  winter  months,  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  flowers  from 
frost  while  in  transit.  This  is  readily  done  where  they  are  packed  in  the 
pasteboard  boxes  referred  to.  The  shipping  case  is  lined  with  several  thick- 
nesses of  strong,  heavy  felt ;  and  in  the  coldest  weather  each  individual  box 
may  also  be  wrapped  with  paper.  Packed  in  this  manner,  flowers  will 
carry  a  number  of  hours  in  the  coldest  weather,  without  injury,  as  the  paste- 
board boxes  protect  the  blooms  from  frost,  even  if  it  should  penetrate  the 
outer  case. 

When  the  flowers  are  shipped  in  bundles,  it  is  more  difficult  to  avoid 
loss  by  freezing,  as  if  the  cold  penetrates  the  case  at  any  point,  it  rapidly 
spreads  throughout  the  entire  mass  of  flowers  and  injures  them;  whereas, 
when  packed  in  the  pasteboard  boxes,  if  the  cold  penetrates  through  the  outer 
case,  it  still  meets  with  resistance  from  the  pasteboard  box  and  its  wrapping. 
During  an  experience  of  ten  years  in  shipping  flowers,  we  have  had  com- 
paratively few  complaints  of  their  being  injured  by  frost  in  transit,  when 
packed  in  the  pasteboard  boxes ;  in  fact,  it  may  be  said,  that  almost  all  of 
the  losses  which  we  have  incurred  from  flowers  freezing  in  transit  have 
been  where  the  blooms  were  packed  in  bunches,  and  not  where  they  were 
enclosed  in  the  pasteboard  boxes. 

As  before  stated,  the  chief  value  of  a  flower  consists  in  its  being  placed 
in  the  consumer's  hands  in  a  fresh,  durable  condition.  Some  growers  won- 

125 


Picking,   Packing  and  Shipping  Carnation  Flowers 

der  why  their  neighbor's  blooms  are  usually  preferred  by  retail  dealers,  at 
prices  higher  than  those  obtained  for  their  own  productions,  reasoning  to 
themselves,  "My  carnation  plants  are  as  good  as  my  neighbor's ;  my  flow- 
ers are  as  large ;  I  grow  the  same  varieties ;  I  should  get  the  same  prices." 
All  of  these  premises  may  be  true,  save  the  last,  and  investigation  may 
disclose  the  neighbor's  superior  methods  of  handling  his  flowers,  in  picking, 
packing  and  shipping. 

Superior  methods  of  placing  an  article  upon  the  market  in  the  shape 
that  will  prove  most  attractive  to  the  purchaser  are  sure  to  bring  their  re- 
ward in  increased  prices,  other  things  being  equal.  In  no  business  do 
cleanliness  and  artistic  handling  of  goods  play  a  more  important  role 
than  in  the  florist's  business ;  and  the  grower,  commission  man  and  retail 
dealer  must  each  do  his  part  if  the  greatest  degree  of  success  is  to  be  at- 
tained. 


126 


CHAPTER  XII 

Insects  and  Preventives 

IF  it  were  not  for  the  insects  that  prey  upon  the  plant  and  the  various  dis- 
eases to  which  it  is  subject,  carnation  growing  would  be,  comparatively,  a 
pastime.  But  with  all  the  care  that  may  be  taken  in  watering,  ventilating 
and  preparation  of  soils,  unless  the  grower  learn  to  master  the  various  in- 
sects and  diseases  which  attack  the  carnation  his  returns  will  be  but  meagre. 
There  are  comparatively  few  insects  that  infest  the  plant,  but  those  that  do 
are  persistent,  and  unless  met  with  preventive  or  curative  measures  will 
seriously  injure,  if  not  destroy,  the  crops  of  bloom. 

Green  Fly 

The  most  prevalent  of  these  insect  enemies  is  the  green  fly,  or  aphides 
(Rhopalosiphum  dianthi).  However,  this  pest  is  more  easily  prevented  and 
destroyed  than  any  of  the  others  infesting  the  carnation.  The  green  fly  is 
easily  eradicated  by  several  methods,  the  most  common  of  which  are,  first, 
fumigating  with  tobacco  stems,  or  tobacco  dust;  second,  sprinkling  tobacco 
dust  upon  the  plants;  third,  fumigating  with  red  pepper;  fourth,  painting 
the  pipes  with  tobacco  mixture  made  as  follows :  Dissolve  one  pint  of  rose 
leaf  extract  in  one  quart  of  pure  water;  paint  the  pipes,  when  cold,  during 
the  day,  once  or  twice  each  week.  When  the  steam  is  turned  on  at  night 
the  heat  will  evaporate  the  extract,  filling  the  house  with  pungent  fumes. 
This  painting  is  efficacious  only  where  steam  is  used  in  heating ;  fifth,  evapo- 
rating tobacco  extract  from  pans  attached  to  steam  pipes ;  sixth,  evaporating 
tobacco  extract  by  boiling  it  over  an  oil  stove,  using  equal  parts  of  the  tobacco 
extract  and  water,  and  evaporating  from  four  to  six  gallons  to  a  house 
100x20  feet,  according  as  it  seems  necessary  to  destroy  the  insects. 

The  green  fly  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  a  foothold  in  carnation 
houses,  but  its  appearance  should  always  be  prevented  by  early  and  continu- 
ous fumigation  of  some  sort,  as  soon  after  the  plants  have  been  housed  as 
growth  has  been  established.  After  the  plants  are  in  full  growth  they  should 
be  fumigated  at  least  once  each  week,  and  this  should  be  continued  until  they 

127 


Insects  and  Preventives 

are  fully  in  bloom.  The  importance  of  this  early  and  continuous  fumigation 
must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  The  aphis  having  once  become  well  established 
upon  the  plants,  will  frequently  maintain  themselves  throughout  the  entire 
winter,  in  spite  of  continued  fumigation.  But  if  the  first  colonies  that  de- 
velop after  the  plants  are  brought  into  the  houses  are  promptly  destroyed, 
the  succeeding  colonies  will  diminish,  and  the  insects  will  not  multiply  to 
an  injurious  extent,  provided  the  houses  are  fumigated  once  each  week  until 
the  plants  are  in  bloom.  At  this  period  it  is  well  to  cease  burning  tobacco 
stems,  for  the  reason  that  fumes  injure  the  flowers,  destroying  the  natural 
odor ;  they  also  impair  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  blooms  to  some  extent,  as 
well  as  bleach  the  colors. 

From  this  period  blooming  plants  should  be  kept  free  from  aphis  by 
using  some  one  of  the  mixtures  of  tobacco  extract.  The  substance  employed 
may  be  applied  to  the  steam  pipes,  having  it  of  the  consistency  of  paint  and 
brushing  it  on  the  pipes  thoroughly  during  the  daytime  while  the  pipes  are 
still  cool.  When  the  steam  is  turned  on  at  night  the  fumes  of  the  tobacco 
extract  will  be  given  off,  and  if  sufficient  pipe  surface  is  covered  with  the 
extract  it  proves  as  efficient  in  destroying  aphides  as  the  more  objectionable 
method  of  burning  tobacco  stems. 

The  extract  may  also  be  evaporated  from  pans  attached  to  the  steam 
pipes.  The  extract  may  also  be  evaporated  by  boiling  it  in  shallow  dishes 
upon  an  ordinary  oil  stove. 

If  the  grower  will  treat  his  plants  to  thorough  fumigation  once  or  twice 
a  week  from  the  time  they  have  become  well  established  until  they  are  in 
bloom,  and  then  follow  up  with  a  weekly  fumigation  with  the  tobacco  extract, 
it  is  probable  that  no  aphis  will  be  seen  during  the  winter,  unless  the  plants 
when  brought  in  from  the  field  were  thoroughly  infested  with  the  insects. 

In  order  to  guard  against  the  stock  being  attacked  in  the  field  during 
the  summer,  it  is  essential  that  the  young  plants  be  treated  to  fumigation  at 
least  once  a  week,  up  to  the  time  they  are  to  be  planted  out.  The  week 
previous  to  setting  the  plants  in  the  field,  we  follow  the  practice  of  fumigating 
the  young  stock  every  other  night,  so  as  to  insure  killing  all  the  insects 
which  may  have  escaped  previous  fumigation. 

Red  Spider 

One  of  the  most  difficult  insects  to  hold  in  check  is  the  red  spider 
(Tetranychus  telarius).  This  pernicious  little  mite  seems  to  be  unaffected  by 
all  of  the  tobacco  remedies  which  prove  efficacious  in  the  case  of  the  aphides. 

128 


GOLDEN    EAGLE  NOVELTY 

Examples  of  Yellow  Variegated 

PLATE  II.     SEEDLING  CARNATIONS    (WARD) 


Insects  and  Preventives 


In  fact,  at  the  present  time,  I  know  of  no  method  of  fumigation,  not  in- 
jurious to  the  plants,  that  will  destroy  the  red  spider.  The  fumes  of  sul- 
phur seem  to  hold  this  insect  in  check,  but  unless  sulphur  is  very  carefully 
used,  the  growing  plants  will  be  injured  and  often  killed.  The  sulphur  is 
usually  applied  as  a  paint  to  the  heating  pipes,  being  either  mixed  with  lime  to 
form  a  whitewash,  or  with  linseed  oil.  It  may  also  be  mixed  with  the  tobacco 
extract,  and  when  applied  in  this  manner  the  combined  fumes  of  the  sulphur 
and  tobacco  destroy  the  aphides,  as  well  as  check  the  spread  of  the  red 
spider. 


Red  Spider 

Tetranycbus  himaculatus  adult — Enlarged.    (From  Banks, 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture) 

Sulphur  and  Lime  Formula. — Slack  three  pounds  of  quick  lime  in  a 
gallon  of  water,  to  which  add  one  pound  flour  of  sulphur,  and  stir  till  all  is 
evenly  mixed.  If  the  wash  proves  too  stiff  to  be  brushed  on  easily,  add  more 
water.  Paint  three  to  four  runs  of  pipe  in  each  house.  This  paint  should  be 
renewed  about  every  eight  or  ten  days. 

Sulphur  and  Linseed  Oil  Mixture. — One-quarter  pound  flour  of  sul- 

»  129 


Insects  and  Preventives 

phur,  to  one  quart  of  boiled  linseed  oil.  Mix  thoroughly  and  apply  like  any 
ordinary  paint. 

Sulphur  and  Tobacco  Mixture. — Dissolve  one-quarter  pound  flour  of  sul- 
phur in  one  quart  of  rose-leaf  extract,  to  which  has  been  added  two  quarts 
of  water.  Stir  thoroughly,  and  apply  as  a  paint. 

The  usual  method  of  keeping  down  the  red  spider  is  to  syringe  the 
plants,  either  with  pure  water  or  with  a  caustic  preparation  of  soap,  such 
as  whale  oil  or  Ivory  soap. 

When  using  pure  water,  the  most  effective  manner  seems  to  be  the 
syringing  of  the  plants  with  a  fine  spray  under  high  pressure.  I  have  become 
well  satisfied  that  the  mere  presence  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  does  not 
prevent  the  propagation  and  spread  of  red  spider,  but  that  the  efficiency  of 
water  as  a  spray  is  measured  by  the  force  with  which  the  water  is  driven 
against  the  insect ;  as  in  my  experience  the  red  spider  seems  to  thrive  very 
well,  indeed,  in  a  very  moist  atmosphere,  unless  forceful  syringing  is  resorted 
to.  Too  much  syringing,  however,  is  deleterious  to  the  plants,  as  it  washes 
off  the  natural  bloom  which  covers  the  foliage,  and  frequently  results  in 
attacks  of  spot  and  various  other  fungi. 

Of  the  soap  preparations,  the  best  we  have  found  is  a  solution  of  Ivory 
soap,  made  as  follows :  One-pound  cake  of  Ivory  soap,  five  gallons  of  water. 
Shave  the  soap  into  a  kettle  holding  at  least  a  gallon  of  water.  Boil  slowly 
until  the  soap  is  dissolved.  Add  to  this  mixture  sufficient  water  to  make  five 
gallons,  then  churn  the  whole  through  a  syringe  until  an  emulsion  is  formed. 

This  emulsion  should  be  thrown  upon  the  plants  with  a  fine  spray,  the 
same  as  is  used  when  syringing  with  pure  water.  After  the  solution  has  re- 
mained upon  the  plants  two  hours,  it  should  be  washed  off,  by  syringing  with 
clear  water.  In  the  use  of  soap  mixtures,  as  well  as  in  washing  them  off, 
we  have  found  the  high  pressure  syringing  with  a  very  fine  rose  the  most 
effective.  In  using  any  caustic  preparation  upon  plants,  the  grower  must 
remember  that  soft,  sappy  growths  are  frequently  injured,  and  these  solu- 
tions ought  not  to  be  applied  to  plants  that  are  in  such  condition. 

Use  of  Salt  as  a  Preventive  of  Red  Spider 

During  the  past  three  years  we  have  been  using  a  solution  of  salt,  made 
as  follows :  Eight  six-inch  potfuls  of  common  salt  in  50  gallons  of  water. 
When  using  this  solution,  always  stir  from  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  in  order 
to  insure  an  even  strength  throughout.  Give  the  foliage  a  thorough  spraying, 
both  underneath  and  above,  using  a  fine  rose  under  strong  pressure.  After 
syringing  with  the  salt  solution,  this  should  be  allowed  to  remain  from  three 

130 


Insects  and  Preventives 

to  four  days  in  bright  weather,  and  from  one  to  two  days  in  dark  cloudy 
weather,  after  which  the  salt  should  be  thoroughly  washed  off  the  plants 
by  a  strong  syringing  with  clear  water.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  syringe 
with  the  salt  solution  too  often.  The  carnation  plant  loves  a  certain  amount 
of  salt,  and  is  not  injured  by  what  will  reach  the  soil,  provided  the  applica- 
tions are  not  too  frequent,  or  the  solution  not  too  strong. 

Do  not  spray  the  plants  with  the  salt  solution  unless  the  foliage  is  in  a 
firm,  well-hardened  condition,  for  if  applied  to  plants  that  are  in  a  soft  state, 
that  is  to  say,  those  that  have  been  grown  under  a  too  high  temperature,  or 
in  soil  that  has  been  kept  too  moist,  the  tender  foliage  will  be  injured  or 
burned,  and  as  the  salt  keeps  the  foliage  constantly  wet  during  the  night  time, 
there  is  some  danger  of  developing  spot  upon  very  soft  plants. 

An  application  of  salt  should,  generally,  not  be  made  oftener  than  once 
in  two  weeks ;  however,  we  occasionally  syringe  with  the  salt  mixture 


Thrips  tabaci 

a,  adult};  b,  antenna  01  same;  c,  young  larva;  d,  full  grown  larva — 
Enlarged.    (From  Howard,  U.  S.,  Dept.  of  Agriculture) 

upon  alternate  days,  using  a  weaker  solution  of  salt.  The  red  spider  does  not 
thrive  upon  the  carnation  foliage  when  it  is  coated  with  the  salt  crystals ;  and 
after  one  or  two  thorough  applications  of  the  solution  comparatively  few  of  the 
insects  will  be  found. 

Thrips 

While  the  red  spider  may  be  considered  one  of  the  worst  insects  attack- 
ing the  carnation,  I  believe  that  the  most  injurious  insect  with  which  the 
grower  has  to  contend  is  thrips  (Heliothrips  tabaci).  This,  like  the  red 
spider,  is  an  insect  which  it  is  difficult  to  see  with  the  naked  eye,  especially 
in  its  young  state.  It  does  the  principal  damage  to  the  flowers  while  yet 
in  the  bud  form.  Unlike  the  red  spider,  which  confines  its  attacks  to  the 
epidermis  of  the  foliage,  and  principally  the  lower  or  harder  foliage,  the 
thrips  attacks  the  tender,  terminal  shoots,  or  the  tender  petals  of  the  ex- 


Insects  and  Preventives 

panding  flower  buds.  It  feeds  upon  the  plant,  by  piercing  the  tissue  and  suck- 
ing the  contents  of  the  cells.  Its  presence  may  be  discovered  by  the  twisted 
and  curled  condition  of  the  young  growths,  and  also  by  the  marring  of  the 
petals  as  the  flower  is  opened.  Sometimes  thrips  injures  the  buds  so  seri- 
ously that  the  petals  are  glued  together,  and  the  blooms  fail  to  open. 

The  thrips  seems  to  have  become  more  prevalent  each  year  during  the 
past  five  seasons,  and  in  some  places  has  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
almost  destroy  crops  of  carnations  at  certain  periods.  Its  increase  in  the 
Eastern  States  has  been  such,  that  in  certain  localities  it  is  impossible  to 
grow  marketable  carnation  flowers  in  the  open  ground.  It  can,  however,  be 
kept  under  control  in  the  greenhouses,  the  principal  remedy  being  heavy 
fumigation  with  tobacco  stems.  Some  growers  have  recommended  fumi- 
gating with  red  pepper,  but  so  far  as  I  have  experimented  with  this  substance 
it  does  not  seem  to  be  very  efficient.  Repeated,  heavy  fumigations  with 
tobacco  stems  will  keep  the  thrips  in  check  to  some  extent,  but  owing  to  the 
fact  that  this  pest  is  generally  concealed  in  the  enfolded  bud,  it  is  impossible 
to  reach  all  of  the  insects  by  one  fumigation,  or  even  by  several ;  therefore, 
it  is  much  more  difficult  to  eradicate  than  red  spider. 

A  patented  compound,  manufactured  in  England  and  sold  under  the 
name  of  "X  L  All,"  has  been  successfully  used  in  destroying  thrips,  and  has 
proved  more  efficient  than  the  ordinary  fumigation  with  tobacco.  It  is, 
however,  very  expensive  at  the  present  time ;  in  fact,  so  costly  as  to  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  ordinary  carnation  grower.  It  is  furnished  in  small 
cakes,  each  cake  being  sufficient  for  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space.  It  is 
used  by  vaporizing  the  cakes,  either  by  means  of  a  special  lamp  made  for  the 
purpose,  or  upon  an  ordinary  tin  pan  placed  over  an  alcohol  lamp.  This 
vaporizing  is  done  just  at  night,  and  the  houses  closed  and  locked  for  the 
night.  In  order  to  get  the  best  results  with  the  employment  of  this  com- 
pound, it  is  necessary  to  use  it  several  times  consecutively ;  that  is,  vaporizing 
the  house  upon  one  night  and  following  with  another  vaporization,  either  the 
succeeding  night  or  the  second  night  after.  If  this  be  repeated  once  in  two 
weeks,  the  thrips  will  be  held  in  check,  and  the  damage  therefrom  much  re- 
duced. 

Cut  Worms 

Ordinary  black  or  variegated  cut  worms  occasionally  injure  young  car- 
nation plants  in  the  field,  cutting  off  the  foliage  or  gnawing  out  the  terminal 
shoot  immejdiately  after  the  plants  are  set  out.  The  injury  done  by  cut 
worms  to  young  plants  is,  however,  of  comparatively  little  moment.  These  do 

132 


Insects  and  Preventives 

the  most  serious  damage  by  boring  into  the  flower  buds  just  before  the  blooms 
open.  The  worms  usually  attack  the  flowers  after  the  plants  are  in  the  green- 
houses and  during  the  early  fall  and  winter ;  they  are  generally  brought  into 
the  greenhouses,  either  upon  the  plants  when  dug  from  the  field,  or  in  the 
soil  where  fresh  sod  is  used  in  the  compost  heaps,  and  in  the  latter  case,  the 
damage  done  is  sometimes  serious.  Usually,  they  appear  in  such  small 
numbers  as  to  cause  the  grower  little  annoyance,  but  may  become  a  serious 
pest  if  fresh  sods  are  used  in  making  up  the  compost  pile,  or  if  weeds  are 
allowed  to  grow  upon  the  carnation  soil  heaps  during  the  summer  time. 

When  cut  worms  are  once  brought  into  the  greenhouses,  the  only  remedy 
is  to  hunt  them  during  the  night  with  a  lantern.  They  feed  upon  the  buds 
during  the  night,  and  hide  either  under  the  foliage  or  conceal  themselves 
by  boring  into  the  earth  at  the  base  of  the  plant.  With  the  aid  of  a  bright 
lantern,  they  will  be  detected  upon  the  flower  buds  in  the  act  of  feeding, 
and  can  easily  be  destroyed ;  or  they  may  be  dug  from  the  earth  during  the 
day  time. 

Carnation  Stalk  Borer 

This  insect  is  usually  present  in  all  carnation  fields,  but  except  in  rare 
instances  it  is  not  a  serious  pest.  It  injures  the  plant  by  boring  into  the 
pith  of  the  stalk,  and  in  some  cases  will  kill  very  young  plants.  Upon  mature 
plants  this  borer  generally  injures  but  one  branch,  and  the  damage  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  is  done  before  the  insect  is  discovered.  When  carnations  are 
planted  upon  newly-ploughed  ground,  the  stalk  borer  may  become  sufficiently 
numerous  to  do  considerable  harm ;  but  under  ordinary  circumstances  it 
injures  so  few  plants  as  to  cause  the  grower  no  concern.  If  the  carnation 
fields  are  properly  prepared,  by  ploughing  under  the  sod  in  early  August  of 
the  preceding  year,  and  frequently  ploughing  during  the  fall,  the  ground 
being  left  in  a  roughened  condition  at  the  last  ploughing,  so  that  frost  will 
thoroughly  act  upon  all  of  the  soil  that  has  been  stirred,  very  little  damage 
will  be  done  by  either  the  stalk  borer  or  the  cut  worm,  as  by  this  treatment  of 
the  land  almost  all  of  these  insects  contained  therein  will  be  destroyed. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  well  stated  that  the  best  method  of  fighting 
insect  pests  is  by  preventive  measures.  No  insect  injurious  to  the  carnation 
should  ever  be  allowed  to  take  possession  of  the  plants.  It  is  far  more  easy  to 
prevent  the  propagation  of  insect  pests  than  it  is  to  destroy  them,  once  the 
plants  are  thoroughly  infected  with  them. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Diseases  and  Injuries 

UP  to  a  certain  period,  the  carnation  had  been  considered  among  the 
flowers  least  subject  to  disease,  and  for  many  years  after  the  plant  was 
brought  into  general  cultivation,  very  little  was  heard  of  carnation  dis- 
eases. Sometimes  plants  did  not  seem  to  do  well.  In  such  cases,  it  was  said 
they  needed  different  soils,  or  less  water,  less  heat,  or  more  ventilation,  but 
clearly  defined  diseases  were  practically  unknown  to  the  carnation  grower. 

About  the  year  1889,  Professor  Seymour  of  Massachusetts  described 
the  disease  of  the  carnation  called  Spot  (Septoria  Dianthi),  which  aroused 
the  attention  of  florists  to  the  fact  that  the  plant  was  subject  to  disease. 
However,  Professor  Seymour's  publication  raised  no  particular  apprehen- 
sion in  the  minds  of  growers,  as  comparatively  little  damage  had  yet  been 
done. 

Three  years  later,  the  advent  of  Carnation  Rust  caused  a  great  deal  of 
concern  among  growers,  many  of  whom  thought  that  this  disease  would 
eventually  prove  fatal  to  successful  carnation  culture.  The  appearance  of  this 
disease  caused  a  considerable  disturbance  to  trade,  and  loss  of  confidence 
between  dealers  in  carnation  plants;  many  being  unable  to  definitely  recog- 
nize the  disease,  suspected  every  little  defect  in  carnation  foliage  to  be  the 
Rust. 

In  1889,  Wm.  Falconer  wrote  regarding  Professor  Seymour's  article  : 

"This  whole  question  of  plant  disease  is  one  of  vast  importance  to  us,  but  practical 
men  like  myself  are  absolutely  unfit  to  grapple  with  the  subject;  it  is  a  matter  for  the 
scientist.  We  can  understand  fairly  well  anything  we  can  see  plainly,  but  obscure 
diseases  bother  us.  It  is  not  enough  for  us  to  say,  'Oh,  it's  some  sort  of  a  fungus.' 
Be  precise,  know  for  a  certainty  whether  it  is  a  fungus  or  not,  and,  if  a  fungus,  what 
fungus  it  is ;  also,  whether  the  fungus  is  the  cause  or  the  effect." 

The  manifest  wisdom  of  Mr.  Falconer's  suggestion  impressed  many 
leading  carnation  growers,  who  promptly  accepted  his  advice,  and  called 
upon  the  various  scientists  whose  positions  warranted  their  being  compe- 
tent advisors  upon  the  subject.  The  American  Carnation  Society  was 
favored  with  well  written  papers,  profusely  illustrated  with  the  details 

134 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

demonstrating  the  various  mycelia  which  attack  the  carnation.  As  the  result 
of  these  papers  and  the  discussions  ensuing  thereon,  the  carnation  diseases 
became  familiar  to  those  engaged  in  growing  the  divine  flower,  so  that,  at 
the  present  time,  practical  growers  have  little  trouble  in  diagnosing  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  fungi  which  infect  the  carnation  plant. 

Carnation  Rust  (Uromyces  caryophillinus) 

When  this  disease  was  first  introduced,  about  the  year  1892,  in  some 
localities  it  spread  so  rapidly  over  the  carnation  stocks,  and  caused  so  much 
damage,  as  to  excite  the  gravest  fear  among  many  that  it  would  ultimately 
destroy  the  industry.  Happily,  this  fear  was  not  well  founded,  and,  at  the 
present  time,  this  disease  is  not  considered  a  serious  ailment  in  most  of  the 
etablishments  where  the  plants  receive  proper  treatment. 

The  presence  of  this  fungus  is  first  indicated  in  the  plant  by  a  slight 
swelling,  either  on  the  stem  or  leaf.  The  surface  of  these  swellings  soon 
becomes  pale,  or  nearly  colorless,  as  the  green  coloring  matter  is  destroyed 
and  obscured  by  the  fruiting  threads  and  young  spores  of  the  fungus.  As  the 
fungus  matures,  these  spores  become  brownish  in  color,  and  the  mass  lying 
so  closely  together,  imparts  a  dark  brown  color  to  the  colony  of  fruiting 
spores.  As  growth  proceeds,  the  pressure  from  within  ruptures  the  epidermis, 
exposing  the  mass  of  spores.  When  the  plant  is  thoroughly  infected, 
the  foliage  presents  the  appearance  of  being  thickly  covered  with  dark  brown 
powdery  spots. 

Rust  reproduces  itself  from  two  classes  of  spores.  The  first,  called 
"uredo  spores,"  germinate  readily  in  a  moist  atmosphere  as  soon  as  they  are 
set  free ;  and  as  these  spores  are  easily  scattered  about  and  over  the  plants, 
by  winds  or  draughts,  the  disease  spreads  rapidly  if  conditions  favor  the 
growth  of  the  fungus. 

A  short  time  after  the  development  of  the  uredo  spores,  a  second  kind 
of  spore  is  produced,  termed  the  "teleuto  spore."  These  later  spores  will 
not  germinate  immediately  after  development,  but  must  first  pass  through 
a  period  of  rest,  serving  the  purpose  of  tiding  the  parasite  over  any  unfavor- 
able periods  when  the  uredo  spores  might  fail  to  vegetate. 

The  Rust  attacks  the  carnation  in  every  stage  of  growth,  from  the  seed 
leaf  to  the  mature  plants,  cuttings  in  the  sand  bench  being  particularly 
affected  wherever  they  are  taken  from  an  infected  plant.  Frequently  the 
plant  shows  no  external  evidence  of  the  disease  for  some  considerable  time, 
but  contains  the  threads  within  its  tissues.  In  such  case,  the  disease  develops 

135 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

very  rapidly  among  the  cuttings,  as  soon  as  the  roots  are  formed  in  the 
cutting  bench. 

Many  remedies  have  been  advised  and  elaborately  described ;  but  after  a 
thorough  trial  of  most  everything  that  has  been  put  forward  as  a  cure  for 
Rust,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  plant  once  thoroughly  infected 
cannot  be  absolutely  freed  from  the  disease  until  it  has  run  a  certain  course 
through  the  tissue  of  the  plant,  and  exhausted  itself. 

In  an  article  read  before  the  American  Carnation  Society,  at  its  annual 
meeting  in  1893,  the  author  recommended  spraying  the  plants  with  Bordeaux 
Mixture,  or  the  ammoniacal  solution  of  carbonate  of  copper.  At  that  time, 
when  Rust  first  appeared,  I  had  apparently  cleared  it  from  the  plants,  by 
spraying  with  Bordeaux  Mixture ;  but  subsequent  tests,  under  different  con- 
ditions, prove  the  spraying  to  have  but  little  effect,  and,  at  the  present  time, 
I  am  satisfied  that  these  plants  would  have  recovered  from  the  disease  in  a 
natural  manner,  had  they  been  left  unsprayed  until  the  disease  had  run  its 
course. 

Recent  experiments  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
seem  to  demonstrate  that,  where  a  fungus  infects  a  certain  family  of  plants, 
the  disease  may  be  wholly  got  rid  of,  by  allowing  it  to  exhaust  itself.  It 
will  generally  be  found  that,  when  the  cycle  of  fungoid  growth  is  complete, 
there  will  remain  a  certain  percentage  of  unaffected  plants.  By  propagating 
from  these,  a  strain  will  be  produced  which  is  capable  of  resisting,  or  over- 
coming, the  attacks  of  the  disease.  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion,  that  more 
benefit  will  be  derived  from  pursuing  this  course  in  propagating  carnation 
stocks,  than  by  any  treatment  in  the  way  of  spraying  with  different  mix- 
tures that  has  yet  come  under  my  observation. 

Of  late  years,  we  have  dispensed  entirely  with  spraying  the  plants  for 
the  purpose  of  curing  them  from  attacks  of  Carnation  Rust.  The  disease 
is  located  within  the  tissue  of  the  plant,  and  the  brownish  powder  given  off  is 
but  the  fruiting  spores ;  so  that  while  we  may  reach  these  spores  by  the 
different  sprays  recommended,  the  fungus  itself  retains  its  vitality,  and 
continues  to  give  off  these  fruiting  spores  until  it  is  exhausted. 

I  have  never  yet  seen  a  healthy  carnation  plant  killed  when  attacked  by 
the  Carnation  Rust,  although  I  have  frequently  seen  the  strongest  and  most 
vigorous  plants  affected  by  the  disease  to  such  an  extent  that  for  a  time 
growth  was  largely  arrested.  Nevertheless,  after  the  disease  had  fruited  for 
a  certain  period,  the  plants  seemed  to  recover  from  the  attack,  and  grew 
as  vigorously  as  before. 

So  far  as   spraying  has  been  tried,   I  believe  that  the  salt   solution, 

136 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

which  has  been  recommended  in  Chapter  XII  to  be  used  for  the  destruction  of 
red  spider,  has  a  greater  -effect  in  the  prevention  or  curing  of  Rust  than  any 
of  the  other  mixtures  I  have  tried. 

As  a  preventive  against  this  disease,  the  following  conditions  should 
be  observed :  The  foliage  should  be  free  from  any  moisture,  or  condensa- 
tion, during  the  night  time.  A  free  circulation  of  air  about  the  plants  at  all 
times  should  be  provided.  The  plants  should  be  kept  in  a  vigorous,  growing 
condition.  A  close,  damp  atmosphere,  with  an  abnormally  high  temper- 
ature, favors  the  development  of  Rust  and  other  fungi.  Probably  the  most 
essential  feature  in  preventing  these  diseases  is  to  maintain  a  pure  atmos- 
phere, as  cool  and  dry  as  is  compatible  with  healthy  growth. 

Spraying  Formulas  Which   Have  Been  Recommended  as 
Curative  Agencies  for  Rust 

Bordeaux  Mixture. — Take  six  pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  four  pounds  of 
quick  lime  and  twenty-two  gallons  of  water.  Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate 
in  part  of  the  water;  then  make  a  thin  whitewash  with  the  lime,  to  which 
add  the  copper  sulphate  solution;  then  add  the  remainder  of  the  water, 
mixing  thoroughly.  When  using  this  mixture,  it  must  be  thoroughly  agi- 
tated, so  as  to  prevent  the  precipitation  of  the  lime  and  copper  sulphate. 

Ammoniacal  Solution  of  Carbonate  of  Copper. — Dissolve  six  ounces  of 
pulverized  ammonia  carbonate  and  one  ounce  of  copper  carbonate  in  ten 
gallons  of  water.  This  should  be  prepared  as  it  is  needed,  and  should  be 
thoroughly  agitated  during  the  operation  of  spraying. 

The  following  solution  has  also  been  used  with  good  results:  Dis- 
solve one  pound  of  sulphate  of  copper  in  two  quarts  of  ammonia ;  dilute  this 
with  thirty  gallons  of  water,  and  use  as  before  described. 

Carnation  Spot  (Septoria  Dianthi) 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  carnation  diseases,  and  possesses  certain 
characteristics  by  which  it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  fungi  that 
attack  the  plant.  The  Spot  is  characterized  by  a  circular,  or  oblong,  brown- 
ish center,  bordered  by  a  dark  band,  purplish  in  color.  The  whitish  center 
of  the  spot  is  dotted  with  minute,  black  points,  which  are  portions  of  the 
fruiting  spores  projecting  through  the  epidermis  to  the  surface.  Whenever 
the  spot  is  on  the  margin  of  the  leaf,  it  will  be  semi-circular  in  form.  When 
the  spot  extends  across  the  larger  part  of  the  leaf,  the  outer  portion  will  die. 
On  the  stem,  the  spot  appears  as  an  oblong  patch  on  one  side,  the  border 

137 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

not  usually  so  well  marked  as  on  the  leaf.  As  a  rule,  this  disease  is 
developed  by  improper  treatment  of  plants.  It  also  frequently  develops  upon 
plants  in  the  open  field,  when  a  hot,  dry  season  is  followed  by  a  continuous 
spell  of  wet,  cold  weather;  and,  then  again,  by  periods  of  intense  heat.  It 
may  also  be  easily  developed  upon  freshly  transplanted  plants,  by  over- 
watering  and  over-spraying  the  plants  before  root  action  is  fully  established, 
and  by  leaving  the  foliage  wet  over  night,  especially  where  the  night  tem- 
perature is  allowed  to  fall  considerably  below  45  degrees. 

As  a  rule,  where  carnation  plants  are  properly  watered  and  abundantly 
ventilated,  this  disease  will  not  prove  serious.  The  same  spraying  which 
has  been  recommended  for  Rust  will  usually  arrest,  or  prevent,  the  spread 
of  the  Spot;  and  the  same  treatment  as  to  keeping  the  plants  in  vigorous 
growth,  and  also  the  atmosphere  in  a  pure  condition,  is  recommended. 

Fairy  Ring  Spot  (Heterosporium  echinulatum) 

This  fungus,  which  was  imported  from  Europe  about  the  year  1892 
or  1893,  has  been  known  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  in  England.  In 
appearance,  it  differs  from  Septoria  Dianthi  in  that  the  vegetable  threads, 
growing  within  the  leaf  tissue,  exhaust  the  substance  at  certain  points,  so 
that  there  appears  a  nearly  circular,  light-colored  spot.  The  spores  are 
brown  in  color,  and  when  produced  in  great  numbers,  with  the  threads, 
darken  the  spot.  At  this  stage,  the  spot  possesses  different  shades  of  color, 
according  to  the  number  of  spores  produced.  The  growth  of  the  fungus 
from  the  center  of  the  spot  is  centrifugal,  and  the  darker  color  is  apt  to  be 
arranged  in  concentric  lines,  or  rings,  representing  a  miniature  fairy  ring — 
hence  the  name. 

This  fungus  is  much  more  injurious  to  the  carnation  than  the  Septoria 
Dianthi,  as  it  spreads  more  rapidly  and  destroys  the  foliage  to  a  greater 
extent ;  in  fact,  I  have  many  times  seen  the  greater  part  of  the  foliage  taken 
from  plants  by  this  disease. 

The  same  conditions  that  bring  on  attacks  of  Septoria  will  favor  the 
development  of  the  Fairy  Ring,  and  the  same  remedies  are  also  recom- 
mended. 

Stem  Rot  (Rhizoctonia) 

Probably  the  most  insidious  and  destructive  of  the  various  fungous  dis- 
eases known  to  carnation  growers  is  Stem  Rot  (Rhizoctonia).  This  disease 
has  been  known  to  the  American  grower  for  many  years,  but  until  within 
a  recent  period,  it  appeared  in  its  destructive  form  only  at  rare  intervals. 

138 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

During  some  unfavorable  seasons,  it  has  destroyed  almost  the  entire  stock 
of  several  growers.  It  is  caused  by  a  fungus,  the  spores  of  which  exist 
in  the  soil,  and  it  apparently  attacks  a  number  of  other  plants  besides  the 
carnation.  It  frequently  attacks  plants  in  the  field,  causing  large  loss,  but  is 
usually  the  most  destructive  shortly  after  the  plants  are  brought  into  the 
houses — in  August  and  September.  Thus  far,  comparatively  little  is  known 
about  the  disease,  and  probably  less  about  preventing  it.  In  my  opinion,  it 
may  be  largely  brought  about  by  improper  treatment  of  the  cuttings  in  the 
sand ;  also  improper  potting  of  young  stock ;  that  is,  potting  the  plants  too 
deep  ;  also  by  planting  the  young  plants  too  deep  in  the  open  ground.  It  may 
be  also  increased  by  over-watering  the  plants,  and  by  keeping  them  in  a 
close,  warm,  dank  atmosphere. 

Applications  of  lime  to  the  soil  seem  to  have  a  tendency  to  reduce  this 
fungus,  but  thus  far  have  not  proved  a  positive  preventive.  The  steriliza- 
tion of  the  bench  soil  also  tends  largely  to  reduce  the  ravages  of  the  fungus ; 
but  where  the  infected  plants  are  taken  from  the  open  ground  and  planted 
in  sterilized  soil,  the  disease  continues  its  course,  and  the  plants  are  destroyed. 
In  my  opinion,  if  cuttings  are  taken  from  healthy  stock,  and  rooted  in 
sterilized  sand,  then  potted  up  in  sterilized  soil,  and  afterward  shifted  into 
larger  pots,  say  four  to  five  inches,  and  held  in  a  frame  until  June  or  July, 
then  planted  upon  benches  filled  with  sterilized  soil,  these  cuttings  will  re- 
main practically  free  from  the  Stem  Rot. 

I  also  believe  that  propagating  young  stock  from  exhausted  plants  has  a 
tendency  to  increase  this  trouble,  as  such  stock  is  deficient  in  strength,  and 
succumbs  much  more  readily  to  the  attacks  of  fungi  than  stock  propagated 
from  cuttings  taken  from  plants  which  are  growing  vigorously. 

Some  varieties  are  more  inclined  to  Stem  Rot  than  others,  and  the  ex- 
periments of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  with  disease- 
resisting  cotton  plants  would  seem  to  indicate  that  rot-resisting  varieties  of 
carnations  could  also  be  developed. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  Stem  Rot.  The  first  is  where  the  plant  dies  off 
at  the  collar,  and  the  entire  plant  is  lost.  This  disease  attacks  the  plant 
very  rapidly,  and  frequently  carries  it  off  in  a  single  night.  When  a  bench 
becomes  affected,  the  mycelium  apparently  travels  through  the  soil  from 
plant  to  plant,  causing  great  destruction.  Sometimes  as  much  as  90  per 
cent,  of  an  entire  bench  of  plants  has  been  destroyed  by  this  disease. 

The  second  form  of  the  Stem  Rot  might  more  properly  be  termed 
"branch  rot,"  as  usually  some  branch,  or  only  a  portion  of  a  plant  dies.  This 
disease  proceeds  slowly,  and  may  be  usually  noted  by  a  single  branch  grad- 

139 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

ually  drying  up  and  turning  a  whitish  brown.     While  at  times  the  branch 
rot  causes  much  damage,  it  is  not  so  disastrous  as  the  stem  rot. 


Carnation  Leaves  Affected  with  Fusarium  Leaf-Spot 

EXTRACT  FROM  BULLETIN  NO.  164,  DEC.,  1899,  OF  NEW  YORK  AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

A  FUSARIUM  LEAF-SPOT  OF  CARNATIONS,  BY  PROF.  F.  C.  STEWART. 

"A  very  unusual  case  of  Fusarium  attacking  carnation  foliage  was  observed  in  a 
greenhouse  at  Syracuse  last  November.  A  bench  of  carnations  of  the  variety  Emily  Pier- 
son  was  quite  seriously  affected  with  a  peculiar  leaf  spot.  The  spots  varied  in  length  from 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  one  inch.  The  smaller  ones  were  elliptical,  but  the  larger  ones 
occupied  the  entire  width  of  the  leaf  and  were  irregular  at  the  ends.  They  were  covered 
with  a  pinkish  gray  mold  and  irregularly  dotted  at  the  center  with  the  light  yellow  spore 

140 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

masses  of  a  species  of  Fusarium.  Many  of  the  worst  affected  leaves  were  dying.  The 
Fusarium  was  evidently  parasitic  on  the  leaves,  but  a  careful  examination  revealed  the 
fact  that  in  every  case  the  spots  originated  in  a  rust  sorus'.  It  appeared  that  the  Fusarium 
was  unable  to  attack  the  uninjured  leaf,  but  when  the  epidermis  was  broken  by  rust  it 
was  able  to  enter  and  bring  about  decay  of  the  leaf  tissue.  It  is  improbable  that  the 
Fusarium  is  parasitic  upon  the  rust. 

"The  writer  has  occasionally  observed  Fusarium  attacking  injured  leaves  and  stems 
of  carnations  and  the  spore  masses  of  a  similar  Fusarium  are  common  on  the  stems  of 
carnations  affected  with  that  form  of  stem-rot  commonly  known  as  dry  rot  or  die  back  ; 
but  we  have  never  before  known  Fusarium  to  produce  a  genuine  leaf-spot  of  carnations. 
Inoculation  experiments  may  show  that  this  Fusarium  is  identical  with  the  one  causing 
carnation  stem-rot." 

Remedies  and  Preventives  for  Stem  Rot 

The  soil  in  which  carnations  are  grown  through  the  summer  should  be 
frequently  changed,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  carnations  be  planted 
in  the  same  soil  year  after  year,  wherever  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it;  but, 
instead,  a  new  location  should  be  chosen  annually.  Sterilizing  the  bench, 
potting  soil,  and  propagating  sand  should  be  thoroughly  done,  and  should  be 
persisted  in  until  the  disease  is  overcome. 

In  the  preparation  of  bench  or  potting  soils,  too  much  decaying  nitro- 
genous matter  should  not  be  used;  and  the  soil  should  invariably  be  fresh, 
clean,  and  well  decomposed.  Under  no  circumstances  should  rank,  fer- 
menting manures  be  introduced  into  the  soil.  It  is  important  that  the 
soil  in  the  benches  be  kept  sweet,  and  in  a  friable,  healthy  condition,  by 
close  attention  to  watering.  As  cool  a"  temperature  as  possible  should  be 
maintained  after  the  plants  are  benched,  and  until  growth  is  fully  established. 
The  Stem  Rot  usually  disappears,  to  a  large  extent,  upon  the  advent  of  cold 
weather  in  the  fall,  thus  indicating  that  the  fungus  flourishes  best  in  a  high 
temperature. 

So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  study  Stem  Rot  in  the  field,  it  occurs 
immediately  after  the  intense  heat  which  we  usually  have  in  July  and  August, 
and  sometimes  in  September.  When  we  have  had  a  lengthy  spell  of  ex- 
tremely hot  weather,  with  frequent  thunder  showers  and  steaming,  hot 
cloudy  days,  the  Stem  Rot  seems  to  have  developed  to  its  greatest  extent, 
and  caused  the  greatest  damage.  Such  weather  sometimes  induces  the 
rotting  of  potatoes,  squashes  and  melons  in  the  field ;  also  cabbages  and  cauli- 
flower ;  the  disease  being  called  "gangrene"  by  the  growers  of  the  latter  crops. 

In  my  opinion,  Stem  Rot  may  be  largely  avoided  by  propagating  from 
strong,  healthy  stock  plants,  and  by  close  observation  of  sanitary  conditions 
when  rooting  cuttings ;  also  by  proper  treatment  of  the  young  stock  while 

141 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

growing  in  pots,  as  well  as  after  it  is  planted  in  the  field.  The  disease  is, 
however,  largely  caused  by  climatic  conditions  which  are  entirely  beyond 
the  control  of  the  grower,  and  in  unfavorable  seasons  it  will  prevail  to  a  seri- 
ous extent,  no  matter  how  skillfully  the  stock  may  be  handled.  Nevertheless, 


Bactenosis 

the  most  skillfully  handled  and  strongest  stock  will  stand  the  best  chance  to 
grow,  and  will  generally  suffer  the  least. 

Bacteriosis 

Bacterial  disease,  which  has  been  called  Bacteriosis,  shows  readily  upon 
leaves  recently  attacked,  in  the  form  of  translucent  dots  in  otherwise  healthy 
foliage.  It  is  best  recognized  by  holding  the  leaf  so  that  the  light  will  shine 
through  it.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  these  dots  are  about  the  size 

142 


Diseases  and  Injuries 

of  a  pin  point.  Later  on  they  enlarge  and  run  together,  and  the  leaf  finally 
turns  yellow  and  dries  up.  The  presence  of  the  disease  can  be  detected  long 
before  there  is  any  indication  of  it  upon  the  surface,  by  looking  at  the  leaf 
held  toward  the  strong  light.  Recent  observations  of  this  disease  seem  to 
have  determined  that  it  is  caused  by  the  attacks  of  various  insects,  such  as 
red  spider,  thrips,  and  more  particularly  aphis ;  and  wherever  the  plants  are 
kept  free  from  these  insects,  the  bacterial  disease  does  not  seem  to  de- 
velop. Therefore,  the  best  remedy,  or  preventive,  of  this  disease  seems  to  be 
to  keep  down  the  insects,  and  propagate  only  from  healthy,  vigorous  stock, 
selecting  the  strongest  plants,  which  should  be  kept  in  active  growth. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  all  diseases  may  be  largely  prevented,  or 
modified,  by  keeping  the  plants  in  an  active,  growing  condition,  avoiding 
overwatering,  overfeeding,  as  well  as  the  overforcing  which  ensues  when 
the  temperature  is  carried  too  high.  By  a  close  observation  of  all  these  points, 
and,  in  addition,  providing  abundant  ventilation,  the  grower  will  generally 
have  but  little  serious  trouble  with  diseases. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY     OF    CARNATION     DISEASES,    AS     COMPILED     BY    PROF.    \VM.    C.    STURGIS,    OF    THE 
CONNECTICUT    EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

Anthracnose  (Colletotrichum  sp.) 

Descr.,  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Rep.  12,  1891.  p.  301.  ^892) 

Anthracnose,  (Volutella  Dianthi,  Atkins.) 

Descr.,  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Rep.  14,  1893,  pp.  385  &  386.  (1894) 

Bacteriosis  (Bacterium  Dianthi,  Arth.  &  Boll.)     (i») 

Descr.  Illus.,  Ind.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  59,  pp.  17-34.  (r896) 

Treat.,  Ind.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  59,  pp.  34-37.  ^896) 

Leaf-Blight,  (Alternaria,  sp.)     (i») 

Leaf-Mold  (Heterosporium  echinulatum,  (Berk.)  Cke.)     (20) 

Occ.,  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Rep.  14,  1893,  p.  386.  (1894) 

Leaf-Spot  (Septoria  Dianthi,  Desm.) 

Descr.,  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Rep.  14,  1893,  pp.  384  &  385.  (1894) 

Treat,  (pos.),  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  II,  1890,  p.  363.  (1891) 

Rust  (Uromyces  caryophyllinus,  (Schrank)  Schrt.) 

Descr.  Illus.,  Gar.  and  For.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  18  &  19.  (1892) 

Treat,  (pos.),  N.  Y.  (Corn.  Univ.)  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  96,  pp.  334  & 

335-  (1895) 

N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  100,  pp.  50-68.  (1896) 

Gar.  &  For.,  Vol.  X.  p.  444.  (1897) 
Stigmonose  (Woods.) 

Dep.  of  Agr.,  Div.  Veg.,  Phys.  and  Path.,  Bull.  19.  (1900) 
Wilt  (Fusarium  sp?) 

Descr.,  Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Rep.  21,  1897,  pp.   175-181.  (1898) 


'43 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Packing  and  Shipping  Field-Grown  Plants 

AS  a  rule,  it  is  not  desirable  to  purchase  field-grown  plants  that  must 
be  shipped  a  great  distance,  as  plants  taken  from  a  field  near  the 
greenhouses,  and  transferred  to  the  benches  in  the  shortest  possible 
time,  will  suffer  the  least  check.  However,  there  always  will  be  the  neces- 
sity of  purchasing  more  or  less  field-grown  stock  which  must  be  shipped 
from  distant  growers.  The  uncertainties  of  carnation  growing  are  such,  that 
frequently  shortages  will  occur,  and  these  shortages  must  be  made  up  by 
the  purchase  of  field-grown  plants  from  other  growers,  often  located  at 
distant  points. 

Success  in  growing  plants  shipped  from  a  distance  will  not  only  largely 
depend  upon  their  condition  when  taken  from  the  field,  but  will  depend 
equally  as  much  upon  the  care  taken  in  preparing  and  packing  the  plants 
for  shipment,  as  well  as  the  care  exercised  by  the  purchaser  in  properly 
unpacking  and  treating  them  upon  their  arrival,  and  prior  to  planting  on 
the  benches.  Upon  the  part  of  the  seller,  the  utmost  care  should  be  used 
to  have  the  plants  safely  delivered  to  the  transportation  company,  securely 
packed  in  a  cool,  dormant  condition,  so  that  they  will  not  be  injured  by 
either  heating,  or  growing,  during  transit. 

Plants  should  be  dug  as  early  in  the  morning  as  the  foliage  becomes 
dry.  They  should  be  placed  immediately  in  flats  and  carried  to  a  cool  shed, 
the  object  being  to  cool  them  down  as  much  as  possible.  The  roots  should 
not  be  left  exposed  in  the  sun  to  dry,  and  in  all  cases  should  be  covered 
with  moist  sphagnum  moss;  and  the  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to  wilt. 
In  packing,  boxes  about  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  wide,  and  sufficiently 
deep  to  hold  the  plants  without  injury,  are  preferable.  The  flower  shoots 
should  not  be  bent  over,  but  must  stand  erect,  and  free  from  the  top  of 
the  box.  They  should  be  so  packed  that  an  abundance  of  air  may  reach 
the  tops  of  the  plants,  which  must  still  be  protected  from  the  drying  suns 
and  draughts.  The  plants  should  be  boxed  up  while  they  are  cool,  so  as 
to  avoid  fermenting  and  heating. 

144 


Packing   and  Shipping  Field-Grown  Plants 

Commence  the  packing  by  placing  a  layer  of  well-moistened  sphagnum 
moss,  about  three  inches  deep,  over  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Tilt  the  box 
up  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees ;  then,  beginning  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
box,  lay  the  plants  firmly  against  the  end,  having  previously  lined  up  the 
end  of  the  box,  about  six  inches  above  the  bottom,  with  a  layer  of  moist- 
ened sphagnum.  Put  in  a  layer  of  plants,  then  work  in  a  layer  of  sphag- 


Carnation  Plants  Packed  for  Shipment 

num  around  and  through  the  roots,  and  up  around  the  neck,  working  in 
about  two  or  three  layers  of  plants  with  moss,  according  to  size.  Be  sure 
that  the  moss  covers  the  roots  thoroughly,  so  that  they  will  not  be  exposed 
to  the  air ;  and  have  the  moss  sufficiently  dampened  to  remain  moist  during 
the  entire  period  of  transit.  Xow  take  a  cleat  that  will  just  fit  in  the  box, 
so  it  can  be  nailed  through  at  each  end,  and  press  the  plants  sufficiently 


10 


145 


Packing   and  Shipping  Field-Grown    Plants 

firm  against  the  end  of  the  box,  so  that,  when  the  cleat  is  nailed  fast,  the 
plants  cannot  be  moved,  even  when  the  box  is  roughly  thrown  about.  Then 
put  another  layer  of  sphagnum  moss  over  the  roots  of  the  last  layer  of 
plants,  and  fill  in  other  plants,  cleating  them  in  as  with  the  first  layer,  and 
continue  until  the  box  is  filled. 

In  closing  up  the  box,  the  cover  should  be  raised  from  two  to  three 
inches  above  the  sides,  and  should  be  supported  by  cleats  nailed  into  the 
corner.  When  the  cover  is  nailed  on,  there  should  be  a  circulation  of  air 
all  around  and  over  the  tops  of  the  plants,  and  every  layer  should  be  so 
thoroughly  cleated  in  that  the  plants  will  not  fall  out,  or  move,  even  if  the 
box  be  turned  upside  down.  Mark  the  address  of  the  consignee  so  plainly 
upon  the  top  and  on  the  end  of  the  box  that  it  cannot  be  mistaken.  Do  not 
fail  to  print  in  large  letters,  "Perishable  Plants — No  Delay."  All  this  done, 
the  shipment  is  ready  for  delivery  to  the  express  company. 

Treatment  of  Field-Grown  Plants  When  Received  After 

a  Long  Shipment 

The  grower,  upon  receiving  a  lot  of  field-grown  plants  that  have  been 
shipped  from  a  distance,  should  place  the  box  immediately  in  the  coolest 
place  at  hand,  and  unpack  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  will  be  best  to  retain 
as  much  of  the  sphagnum  moss  as  is  practicable  around  the  roots.  When 
unpacked,  the  roots  of  the  plants  should  be  set  upon  a  moist  surface,  in  a 
cool  place,  and  the  tops  well  moistened  with  cool  water.  If  they  are  wilted 
to  any  extent,  the  plants  should  remain  in  the  cool  place  until  they  show 
some  evidence  of  recovery  from  the  wilt.  In  some  instances,  a  good  soaking 
of  the  entire  plant  in  clear  water  has  proven  beneficial.  They  can  then  be 
planted  upon  the  benches. 

Where  plants  have  been  shipped  some  distance,  and  are,  to  some  extent, 
in  a  delicate  condition,  it  is  best  to  plant  them  in  the  benches  late  in  the 
afternoon,  so  that  they  may  have  the  cool  of  the  night  in  which  to  com- 
mence the  first  stage  of  recovery.  If  they  are  received  upon  a  cloudy  day, 
they  can  be  planted  at  any  time ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  we  have  obtained 
the  best  results  by  planting  after  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

Plants  received  from  distant  points  require  rather  more  shading,  and 
a  little  closer  watch  upon  the  ventilation,  than  those  taken  direct  from  fields 
near  by.  It  will  also  take  such  stock  considerably  longer  to  recover,  and 
the  results  from  it  will  scarcely  ever  be  as  good  as  from  the  stock  grown 
at  home.  Such  plants  are  also  more  liable  to  attacks  of  spot,  rust,  stem-rot, 
and  the  other  fungous  diseases,  especially  if  not  properly  cared  for. 

146 


Packing   and  Shipping  Field-Grown  Plants 

Some  carnation  growers  who  receive  plants  shipped  from  a  distance 
\vill  allow  them  to  lie  in  the  cases,  unpacked,  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time ;  they  will  also  let  the  plants  lie  around,  and  become  somewhat  with- 
ered and  dried  out.  Of  course,  stock  treated  in  this  way  will  not  do  well, 
and  frequently  the  grower  receiving  it  will  lose  a  large  proportion ;  and, 
having  met  with  such  losses,  will  lay  the  blame  upon  the  shipper  of  the 
plants,  instead  of  ascribing  it  to  the  real  cause,  which  is  improper  treat- 
ment upon  receipt  and  planting.  There  are  also  shippers  of  plants  who 
will  dig  them  from  the  field  in  a  rough  manner,  and  slash  them  about, 
breaking  off  many  of  the  branches ;  pack  them  roughly  into  any  sort  of  a 
case,  and  expect  the  purchaser  to  receive  them  without  a  murmur. 

Growers  who  are  obliged  to  purchase  plants  from  the  field  in  the 
fall,  in  order  to  fill  their  needs,  should  buy  them  as  near  at  hand  as  pos- 
sible; but  in  case  it  be  necessary  to  obtain  them  from  a  distant  source,  be 
sure  to  purchase  from  a  grower  who  is  in  the  habit  of  packing  and  shipping 
his  plants  in  the  best  possible  condition ;  then  supplement  this  by  properly 
caring  for  the  plants  upon  arrival,  unpacking  them  in  due  season,  and  treat- 
ing them  in  a  proper  manner  during  the  planting  time,  as  well  as  after. 
I  have  known  of  large  consignments  of  plants,  shipped  a  thousand  miles 
or  more,  which  have  arrived  in  excellent  condition,  and  have  given  a 
splendid  crop  of  flowers ;  but  the  chances  one  takes  in  shipping  field- 
grown  carnation  plants  such  long  distances  are  great,  and  I  doubt  very 
much  the  desirability  of  procuring  supplies  from  far  distant  points,  pro- 
vided good  stock  of  the  varieties  wished  can  be  secured  nearer  home. 


147 


CHAPTER  XV 

Forcing  Houses  for  Carnations 

IN  the  early  days  of  carnation  culture,  crude  structures  were  generally 
used  for  forcing;  in  fact,  the  carnation  was  treated  as  a  sort  of  rene- 
gade.    Almost  any  bench,  or  position,  that  would  not  grow  roses,  or 
some  other  more  valued  plant  to  advantage,  was  thought  good  enough  for  the 
carnation.     The  early  structures  built  for  forcing  carnations  were  usually 
narrow,   primitive  houses,  glazed  with  hot-bed   sash,   in   which   the  glass 


Original  Type  of  Sash  House   Used  for  Growing  Carnations 

was  seldom  more  than  eight  to  ten  inches  wide.  Flowers  grown  in  such 
houses  were  naturally  much  inferior  to  the  splendid  specimens  now  pro- 
duced in  the  modern  glass  structures — the  evolution  of  the  past  ten  years 
of  experimental  carnation  growing. 

148 


Forcing  Houses   for   Carnations 

These  narrow  houses  were,  as  a  rule,  poorly  heated,  and  frequently 
inadequately  ventilated,  as  growers  often  sought  to  economize  in  coal  by 
keeping  the  houses  closed  during  cold  weather.  In  order  to  produce  the 
best  results  in  the  forcing  of  any  flowering  plant  under  glass  during  the 
winter  months,  it  is  essential  to  provide  for  the  admission  of  the  greatest 
amount  of  sunlight  possible,  as  well  as  to  furnish  sufficient  ventilation  to 
keep  the  plants  in  a  pure,  clean,  normal  atmosphere. 

The  increasing  demand  for  carnation  blooms  of  larger  size,  with  longer 
stems,  has  forced  the  carnation  grower  to  constant  effort  and  study,  with 
a  view  of  improving,  not  only  his  methods  of  growing,  but  the  structures 
in  which  the  plants  are  cultivated. 

The  various  forms  of  carnation  houses  now  in  general  use  may  be 
divided  into  three  types :  the  even  span,  which  may  be  built  with  a  ridge 
running  north  and  south,  or  with  the  ridge  running  east  and  west ;  the 
three-quarter,  or  long  span  to  the  south,  which  is  always  built  with  the  ridge 
running  east  and  west ;  and  the  short  span  to  the  south,  which  might  be 
termed  the  long  span  to  the  north  house,  which  is  also  built  with  the  ridge 
running  east  and  west. 

Exhaustive  trials  with  forcing  houses  have  demonstrated  that  for  forcing 
purposes  wide  houses  are  preferable  to  the  narrow  houses  that  were  exclu- 
sively used  up  to  a  comparatively  recent  period ;  consequently,  the  most 
modern  structures  have  been  built  from  28  ft.  to  30  ft.  wide  and  upward, 
instead  of  16  ft.  to  20  ft.  The  length  of  these  houses  has  also  been  increased 
from  50  ft.  to  100  ft.,  up  to  300  ft.,  and  even  400  ft.  The  advantages  found 
with  these  wide  houses  are  many.  In  the  first  instance,  the  cost  of  the 
structure  per  foot  of  bench  surface  covered  is  relatively  less  than  is  the  case 
with  the  narrow  house.  Secondly,  the  cost  of  heating  and  maintaining  the 
bench  surface  at  the  growing  point  is  relatively  no  greater  in  the  wide  house 
than  in  the  narrow  one,  and  by  some  growers  is  claimed  to  be  less.  The 
increased  volume  of  air  contained  in  the  larger  houses  maintains  a  more 
uniform  temperature  than  is  possible  with  a  narrow  house.  The  oscillation 
of  temperature  is  sensibly  less  in  the  wider  house,  and  the  larger  volume 
of  air  cools  off  more  slowly  than  in  the  small  houses.  True,  when  cool, 
the  larger  houses  require  a  greater  expenditure  of  coal  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture to  the  proper  point,  but  once  the  proper  degree  of  heat  is  obtained,  it 
is  relatively  easier  to  maintain  it  than  is  the  case  where  a  smaller  body  of  air 
exists.  In  other  words,  it  seems  that  the  evaporation  of  heat  is  more  nearly 
in  proportion  to  the  glass  surface  exposed,  than  to  the  volume  of  air  con- 
tained under  that  glass  surface.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  appears  to  have  been 

150 


Forcing  Houses   for  Carnations 

amply  proved  that  the  larger,  wider  house  is  more  desirable,  not  only  in 
carnation  growing,  but  in  the  forcing  of  many  other  flowers  and  plants 
as  well ;  and  at  the  present  time  a  strong  preference  prevails  among  the 
most  advanced  growers  of  carnations  and  roses  for  the  larger  structures, 
more  of  which  are  being  annually  built. 


A  Canadian  Carnation  Range.    J.  H   Dunlop,   Toronto,  Can. 

The  lighter  the  house  (in  other  words,  the  more  nearly  the  light  in 
which  the  carnation  plant  is  forced  approximates  the  normal  outdoor  light 
which  obtains  at  the  natural  blooming  season),  the  better  the  results  obtained, 
not  only  in  the  quality  of  bloom,  such  as  size,  and  length  and  strength  of 
stem,  but  in  the  quantity  which  the  plants  will  produce.  For  this  reason, 


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Forcing  Houses  for  Carnations 

the  size  of  glass  used  in  carnation  structures  has  gradually  been  advanced 
from  8  in.  x  10  in.,  or  8  in.  x  12  in.,  to  glass  uniformly  16  in.  wide  and  from 
16  in.  to  24  in.  in  length,  preference  being  given  the  16  in.  x  24  in.  size,  of 
double-thick  glass. 

At  the  present  time  the  general  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  the  even- 
span  house,  ranging  from  28  ft.  to  30  ft.  in  width,  built  with  the  ridge  run- 
ning east  and  west,  with  ample  ventilation  at  the  ridge,  sides  and  ends,  is 
as  near  the  ideal  type  of  carnation  forcing  house  as  can  be  attained.  These 
houses  are  always  glazed  with  double-thick  glass,  16  in.  wide;  the  height 
of  the  ridge  from  the  floor  being  from  12  ft.  to  14  ft.,  and  of  the  eaves  5  ft. 
Two  lines  of  ventilation,  opening  on  either  side  at  the  ridge,  are  provided. 
With  some  growers,  especially  those  whose  greenhouses  are  located  in  shel- 
tered localities,  where  the  summer  temperature  rises  high,  continuous  lines 
of  ventilation  are  provided  under  the  eaves,  upon  both  sides  of  the  house,  also 
upon  the  ends.  This  is  very  desirable  where  houses  are  planted  as  early 
as  July  or  August,  or  where  the  planting  is  done  in  the  spring  and  the 
plants  grown  in  the  houses  throughout  the  summer.  When  the  ventilators 
upon  the  sides  and  ends  are  thrown  wide  open,  and  those  at  the  roof  are 
also  raised  to  the  fullest  extent,  a  much  lower  temperature  can  be  main- 
tained than  in  houses  where  the  ventilators  at  the  sides  and  ends  are 
absent. 

A  further  reduction  in  temperature  may  be  secured  by  liberally  watering 
the  walks  and  the  ground  underneath  the  benches,  as  evaporation  of  mois- 
ture will  have  a  tendency  to  cool  the  atmosphere.  In  some  instances,  the 
writer  has  been  able  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  two  degrees  lower  under 
glass  than  the  thermometer  registered  in  the  shade  outside.  This  result 
may  be  more  readily  attained  if  the  glass  is  shaded,  or  striped  with  a  solu- 
tion of  white  lead,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX. 

The  importance  of  ample  ventilation  must  not  be  lost  sight  of;  never- 
theless, many  successful  growers,  and  especially  those  whose  houses  are 
located  close  by  the  sea  shore,  within  reach  of  the  salt  fogs,  as  well  as  those 
whose  locations  are  upon  high  altitudes,  where  their  structures  are  exposed 
to  strong  breezes,  do  not  find  side  ventilation  necessary ;  in  fact,  claim 
that  it  is  a  detriment.  But  at  Queens  we  have  found  it  decidedly  bene- 
ficial and  desirable. 

Aspect  of  Forcing  Houses 

All  forcing  houses  should  be  located  in  such  a  position  as  will  expose 
the  plants  contained  therein  fully  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  during  the  day- 


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10 


Forcing  Houses   for  Carnations 

time.  The  houses  should  be  located  away  from  buildings  and  tall  trees, 
and  from  under  the  shadows  of  hills,  or  of  any  object  that  will  shade 
them  from  the  sun's  rays  during  any  portion  of  the  day.  The  even- 
span  house  may  be  built  with  the  ridge  running  north  and  south,  but  the 
three-quarter  span,  and  short  span  to  the  south  houses,  should  be  built  with 
the  ridges  running  east  and  west,  so  that  the  sun's  rays  will  fall  upon 


House  of  Carnation  Enchantress  in  a  Western   Carnation 
Establishment 

the  plants  during  the  entire  day.  Some  growers  prefer  to  face  the  house 
a  little  to  east  of  south ;  others,  directly  south ;  others,  again,  a  little  west 
of  south ;  but  so  far  as  my  experience  goes,  I  have  found  that  properly- 
constructed  houses  facing  south,  or  a  few  points  either  east  or  west  of 
south,  give  practically  the  same  results. 

In  building  a  range  of  glass,  it  is  preferable  to  erect  the  houses  some 


Forcing  Houses    for   Carnations 

distance  apart,  so  as  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air  around  the  houses 
and  through  the  side  ventilators,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the  shading  of  one 
house  by  another.  Carnation  ranges  may  be  built  in  solid  blocks,  with 
gutters  between ;  but  experience  seems  to  have  demonstrated  that  such  wide 
blocks  of  houses  will  not  give  as  good  results,  either  in  quality  of  bloom 
secured,  or  in  quantity,  as  the  individual  houses  situated  sufficiently  distant 
from  each  other  to  afford  ample  ventilation  and  avoid  shading.  This  seems 
to  be  especially  true  where  the  plants  are  grown  in  the  houses  during  the 
hot  months. 

I  have  been  asked  many  times  to  draw  a  plan  for  the  best  type  and 
size  of  a  carnation  house.  My  preference  is  for  a  house  30  ft.  wide  and 
from  200  ft.  to  400  ft.  long,  containing  four  benches  from  4  ft.  4  in.  to  5  ft. 
in  width,  with  a  double  line  of  ventilators  hinged  at  the  ridge,  and  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  ventilation  under  the  plate  around  both  sides  and  at  the 
ends.  On  page  151  is  shown  a  cross-section  of  such  a  house,  giving  the  di- 
mensions. This  house  should  be  glazed  with  double-thick,  first-quality  glass, 
free  from  all  imperfections.  The  material  of  which  the  house  is  to  be 
built  should  be  either  first-class,  clear  white  pine,  free  from  sap,  California 
redwood,  or  the  best  quality  of  gulf  cypress,  which  also  should  be  free 
from  sap.  The  woodwork  shpuld  be  thoroughly  painted  with  not  less  than 
three  coats  of  a  first-class  quality  of  white  lead  in  which  is  mixed  a  fair 
proportion  of  zinc.  The  priming  coat  should  be  brushed  on  when  the  wood 
is  thoroughly  dry,  so  that  it  will  take  up  the  oil  and  bind  the  paint  firmly 
to  the  wood. 

In  building,  all  ends  of  the  woodwork,  wherever  nailed  together,  or 
fitted  into  iron  sockets,  should  be  thoroughly  brushed  with  the  paint  used 
in  priming.  I  consider  the  iron  framework  far  superior  to  wood,  as  it 
insures  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  storms,  and  at  the  same  time  is 
light  enough  in  structure  to  create  the  least  shade,  thus  securing  the 
lightest  possible  house.  The  sash  bars  should  be  as  light  as  is  consistent 
with  sufficient  strength  to  hold  the  glass  firmly  in  place.  The  glass  should 
be  well  bedded  in  first-quality  greenhouse  glazing  putty,  after  the  second 
coat  of  paint  has  been  applied  to  the  woodwork,  and  should  be  securely 
nailed,  using  preferably  a  glazing  nail  from  one-half  inch  to  three-quarters 
inch  in  length,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  bar. 

Throughout  all  greenhouse  structures  the  importance  of  having  the 
greatest  strength  in  connection  with  lightness  and  the  least  shade,  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of,  and  these  conditions  are  best  secured  with  the  iron  con- 
struction. Furthermore,  if  properly  built,  the  iron  structure  will  far  outlast 

157 


Forcing   Houses   for  Carnations 

the  best  wood  framework.  While  the  first  cost  of  iron  construction  may 
be  more  than  that  of  the  wooden  framework,  the  iron  will,  in  the  end, 
prove  the  cheaper,  because  of  its  superior  lasting  qualities.  Again,  the 
rapid  destruction  of  the  forests  upon  the  American  continent  is  surely 
leading  to  a  steady,  permanent  advance  in  the  cost  of  lumber,  and  the  time 
is  not  far  distant  when  the  iron  framework  will  be  fully  as  cheap,  if  not 
cheaper,  than  that  constructed  of  wood. 


Even-span  Propagating  House,  20  Feet  Wide 

While  each  grower  may  have  his  individual  preference  as  to  particular 
styles  and  forms  of  houses,  i(  is,  nevertheless,  a  fact,  that  more  depends 
upon  the  skill  of  the  grower  in  the  management  of  his  plants  than  upon 
particular  forms  or  styles  of  houses ;  but  a  combination  of  the  skillful  grower 
and  the  better  types  of  glass  structure  will  insure  the  greatest  success  in 
commercial  carnation  growing. 

158 


Forcing  Houses   for  Carnations 


GLASS 


New  Galvanized  Iron     U-Bai 


New  Galvanized  Iron  U-Bar  Construction 

These  houses  are  con- 
structed  upon   a   princi- 

,^^._.  pie   entirely  new  and  a 

radical  departure  from 
the  standard  type  of  iron 
frame  greenhouse.  The 
foundation  consists  of 
iron  posts  bedded  in  con- 
crete, to  which  posts  is 
bolted  an  angle-iron  base 
extending  entirely 
around  the  house.  The 
bars  which  are  bolted  to 
this  base  extend  to  the 
ridge,  and  are  there  con- 
nected by  iron  brackets, 
which  also  support  the 
ridge.  There  is  no  plate 
or  gutter  at  the  eaves, 
the  bars  being  bent  at  that  point  and  curved  glass  used.  There  are  no  rafters 
in  the  house,  the  entire  structure  being  self-supporting,  the  U-bars  and  ties 
forming  a  trussed  arch.  The  purlins  can  be  spaced  as  far  as  9  feet  apart. 
The  bar  is  very  small,  measuring  \]/\  by  1^4  inches  over  all.  The  bars  are 
made  of  steel,  U-shaped,  and  filled  with  wood,  which  extends  above  the  U- 
bar  and  forms  a  medium  to  which  to  attach  the  glass  and  prevents  expan- 
sion and  contraction  of  the  metal  bar.  The  glass  is  bedded  in  putty  and  rests 
on  the  edges  of  the  U-bars,  which  are  heavily  galvanized.  The  sides  of  the 
house  below  the  plate  are  of  concrete.  Practically  the  only  wood  exposed  on 
the  inside  of  the  house  is  the  doors,  ridge  and  sash,  while  the  only  iron  ex- 
posed on  the  outside  of  the  house  is  the  sills. 

Owing  to  the  formation  at  the  eaves  it  is  claimed  that  this  type  of  house 
frees  itself  of  ice  much  quicker  and  more  thoroughly  than  any  other  type,  and 
the  claim  is  also  made  that  owing  to  the  rigid  construction  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  expansion  and  contraction  are  guarded  against  there  is  practically 
no  glass  breakage.  The  houses  present  an  appearance  of  extreme  lightness, 
strength  and  durability  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  is  exceedingly  handsome. 
The  construction  is  apparently  exceptionally  durable  and  the  cost  of  repairs 
should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 


159 


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CHAPTER    XVI 

Bench  Construction 

HE  methods  of  building  benches  for  growing  carnations  may  be  divided 
into  four.    The  first  type,  and  the  one  most  commonly  used,  is 


The  Ordinary  Wooden  Bench   Built  Upon  Posts 

Carnation  benches  may  be  made  of  varying  widths — from  3  to 
5  or  6  feet.  In  our  practice  we  have  finally  decided  upon  a  bench  either 
4  ft.  4  in.,  or  4  ft.  8  in.  in  width.  The  4  ft.  4  in.  bench  holds  six  plants  in  a 
row,  and  if  the  rows  are  planted  twelve  inches  apart,  the  plants  will  have 
ample  room  and  ventilation  to  fully  develop  their  flowers.  The  4  ft.  8  in. 
bench  will  also  hold  six  plants  in  a  row,  and  is  built  to  accommodate  varie- 
ties of  extra  vigorous  growth.  If  the  bench  is  made  5  ft.  in  width,  six 
rows  of  plants  will  still  fill  it.  If  made  6  ft.,  another  row  may  be  added,  but 
our  experience  has  been  that  very  little  has  been  gained  by  adding  the  extra 
row  of  plants.  The  wide  benches  are  also  more  inconvenient  to  handle  and 
keep  in  order,  and  when  picking  the  flowers.  The  bench,  4  ft.  4  in.  to  5  ft. 
in  width,  gives  practically  as  many  flowers  as  the  wider  bench,  and  the 
blooms  picked  from  plants  in  the  center  of  the  bench  will  be  stronger 
stemmed,  and  of  better  quality,  than  those  on  very  wide  benches.  The  ordi- 
nary wooden  bench  is  usually  built  of  %-in.  to  i%-'m.  hemlock  for  the  bot- 
toms, and  the  sides  and  bearers  set  upon  cedar,  locust  or  chestnut  posts. 

Posts 

The  best  woods  for  posts  are  the  yellow  locust  and  red  cedar.  Next 
to  these  are  the  chestnut  and  the  white  cedar.  Sassafras,  if  the  sap  forma- 
tion is  shaved  off,  also  makes  an  excellent  post,  which  will  last  fully  as  long  as 
white  cedar,  or  chestnut,  and  probably  longer.  The  hardy  catalpa  is  also 
recommended  as  a  lasting  wood  for  posts.  The  bench  should  be  so  planned 
that  when  completed  the  top  of  the  soil  will  be  about  two  feet  six  inches 
above  the  ground.  The  posts  should  be  set  at  least  eighteen  inches  into  the 
ground,  and  the  bottom  of  the  hole  thoroughly  rammed  before  setting  the 

11  161 


Bench  Construction 

posts.  It  is  also  desirable  to  set  the  end  of  the  post  upon  a  good  hard  brick.  In 
placing  the  posts,  be  sure  and  tamp  the  soil  thoroughly  about  the  bottom, 
and  fill  up  the  hole  solid,  so  that  when  finished,  the  post  stands  perfectly 
firm.  The  following  method  of  setting  posts  has  proved  very  successful : 
Make  up  a  rough  concrete,  or  grouting,  of  broken  stone,  or  clinkers,  mixed 
with  Rosendale  cement;  dig  the  post  hole  about  six  inches  deeper  than 


End  of  Wooden  Bench 

usual;  fill  up  the  bottom  of  this  with  grouting  to  the  depth  of  six  inches, 
and  thoroughly  ram  down  so  as  to  make  a  solid  foundation.  The  post  is 
then  set  in  position,  and  held,  while  a  few  shovelfuls  of  the  grouting  are 
filled  around  the  bottom,  and  again  rammed.  The  remaining  space  is  then 
filled  up  with  soil,  which  is  rammed  until  the  post  stands  perfectly  solid. 

162 


Bench  Construction 


When  this  grouting  sets,  the  post  is  held  firmly,  and  will  not  settle,  and 
cannot  be  moved  in  any  ordinary  manner.  It  is  desirable  to  set  in  this  man- 
ner only  such  posts  as  are  intended  to  remain  permanently,  as  it  is  quite 
difficult  to  remove  them  in  after-years.  The  posts  should  be  set  four  feet 
apart  from  the  centers,  so  that,  when  the  bearers  are  nailed  on,  a  i6-ft.  board 
will  just  cover  four  sections. 

We  use  2^2  x  4  in.  hemlock  for  bearers,  which  are  sawed,  as  shown  in 
cut,  page  162,  illustrating  the  manner  of  constructing  the  bench.  The 
bottom  of  the  bench  can  be  made  of  hemlock  strips,  which  may  run  from 
four  inches  to  six  inches  in  width,  and  one  and  one-quarter  inches  thick. 
These  should  be  nailed  firmly  with  tenpenny  nails  so  that  they  will  not  warp, 
and  should  have  spaces  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  width  between  each 
strip.  A  2.y2  in.  x  4  in.  hemlock  scantling,  re-sawed,  makes  a  first-class  strip 
for  this  purpose,  and  a  1 1/\.  in.  x  6  in.  cypress  or  hemlock  strip  may  be  used 
for  sides.  When  this  bench  is  finished,  the  bottom  and  sides  should  receive 
a  coat  of  Princess  Metallic  Paint,  and  the  bench  should  not  be  filled  with  soil 
until  the  paint  is  dry. 

Solid  Beds 

An  old  method  of  growing  carnations  still  practiced  by  some  florists 
is  in  solid  beds.  While  this  type  of  bed  has  many  disadvantages,  it  has  the 
advantage  of  carrying  the  crop  of  carnation  blooms  in  good  condition  farther 
into  the  summer  months  than  the  ordinary  raised  bench.  But  during  the 


A 


A,  E— Posts  C—Soil 

B,  D— 2-inch  Plank  F— Drainage 

G — Ground  Line 

Cross  Section  of  Solid  Bed 


winter  months  it  is  apt  to  be  slow ;  that  is,  the  flowers  open  slowly,  and 
the  crop  comes  late.  For  this  reason  solid  beds  have  generally  been  aban- 
doned. Many  varieties  of  carnations  also  burst  badly  when  grown  in  solid 

163 


Bench  Construction 

beds,  that  can  be  obtained  in  perfection  upon  raised  benches.  Solid  beds 
are  also  more  difficult  to  water,  and  the  soil  is  more  apt  to  become  sour  and 
soddened  than  is  the  case  with  the  ordinary  style  of  raised  bench. 

A  very  good  solid  bed  may  be  made  by  setting  posts  the  same  distance 
apart  as  recommended  in  the  case  of  the  wooden  bench ;  but  the  posts  should 
not  stand  more  than  eighteen  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Then  nail 
strong  hemlock  planks,  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  thickness  upon  the 
sides  of  the  post,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Now  put  in  about  six  inches  of 
rough  cinders  and  clinkers,  or  broken  stone,  for  drainage,  and  upon  this  place 
one  foot  of  good  soil.  Excellent  carnations  can  be  grown  on  such  a  bench ; 
but,  as  I  have  formerly  said,  in  results  it  has,  with  us,  proved  inferior  to 
raised  benches ;  consequently,  it  has  been  discarded. 

The  Ventilated  Tile  Bench 

This  is  a  style  of  bench  which  is  being  used  with  great  success  by  many 
growers.  It  consists  in  making  the  bottom  of  the  bench  of  round,  porous  drain 
tile,  running  from  three  to  four  inches  in  diameter.  These  tiles  may 
be  supported  upon  timbers,  or  iron  bearers ;  or  a  4-in.  brick  wall  may  be 
built  for  the  sides,  the  space  between  these  walls  being  rilled  with  soil,  thor- 
oughly rammed  down,  the  tile  laid  on  top  of  this,  and  the  brick  wall  con- 
tinued above  the  tiles  to  the  height  necessary  to  secure  the  proper  depth  of 
soil. 

The  advantages  of  such  a  bench  are:  First,  durability,  as  the  bench 
is  practically  indestructible,  if  properly  constructed  and  used.  Second,  a 
good  circulation  of  air  is  secured  under  the  soil  through  the  tile.  This  allows 
warm  air  to  pass  under  the  plants,  and  gives  a  steady,  but  modified,  bottom 
heat.  Another  advantage  in  these  benches  is,  that  the  tiles  retain  moisture 
to  a  considerable  extent,  and  also  absorb  surplus  moisture  from  the  soil,  so- 
that  a  more  even  and  healthful  moist  condition  is  secured  throughout  the 
entire  mass  of  soil  than  is  possible  with  the  ordinary  style  of  wooden  bench. 

The  Sub-Irrigation   Bench 

Much  attention  has  been,  and  will  in  the  future,  be  attracted  by  the 
use  of  the  sub-irrigation  bench,  which  may  be  constructed  either  upon  the 
principle  of  the  raised  bench  or  of  the  solid  bed.  In  general,  raised  benches 
are  more  desirable  than  solid  beds,  and  this  seems  to  be  particularly  true 
in  the  case  of  the  sub-irrigation  bench.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
latter  is  a  shallow  water-tight  tank,  which  may  be  constructed  in  various- 

164 


Bench  Construction 

ways,  and  of  different  materials.  This  tank  is  filled  to  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  sides  with  either  specially  constructed  porous  tile,  or  soft  porous 
brick,  so  arranged  that  there  are  numerous  canals  running  between  the 
bricks  over  the  bottom  of  the  bench,  so  that  when  water  is  introduced  into 
the  bottom  of  the  tank  it  will  rapidly  spread  by  means  of  these  canals  over 
the  entire  bench  bottom.  The  bricks,  or  porous  tile,  will  absorb  this  water 


Iron  Bearer  for  Sub-Irrigation  Bench 

rapidly,  and  pass  it  gradually  upward  through  the  soil,  and  in  this  manner 
the  water  reaches  the  plants  by  means  of  capillary  attraction  and  evapora- 
tion. 

We  have  constructed  a  number  of  sub-irrigation  benches  upon  the  fol- 
lowing plan :  Yellow  locust  or  red  cedar  posts  from  four  inches  in  diameter  are 
used.  The  hole  is  dug  to  a  depth  of  a  little  over  two  feet,  and  about  six  inches 
of  coarse  grout,  made  of  cement  and  clinkers,  or  broken  stone,  is  thrown  to 
the  bottom  and  thoroughly  rammed.  The  post  is  then  set  in  the  desired 
position,  and  the  hole  filled  about  half  way  with  the  coarse  grouting,  which 
is  rammed  as  the  filling  proceeds.  The  soil  is  then  filled  to  the  top.  A 
post  set  in  this  way  is  absolutely  fixed,  and  there  is  no  settling  or  moving. 
The  posts  are  about  four  feet  apart  from  center  to  center,  and  upon  the  top  of 
these  a  yellow-pine  bearer,  six  inches  wide  and  two  inches  thick,  running  the 
full  length  of  the  bench,  is  set  on  edge  and  firmly  nailed.  Into  this  bearer  slots 
are  cut  twenty-four  inches  apart,  which  are  sufficiently  wide  and  deep  to  hold 
the  tongue  of  a  2^-in.  T-iron.  These  T-irons  are  cut  4  ft.  2  in.  in  length 
for  a  4  ft.  4  in.  bench,  and  4  ft.  6  in.  for  a  4  ft.  8  in.  bench.  Upon  the  end  of 
each  iron  is  securely  bolted  a  knee,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  These  irons  are 
placed  in  position,  one  iron  in  each  slot.  Then  they  are  lined  up  so  that  the 
iron  knees  will  stand  in  a  perfectly  straight  and  regular  row.  These  irons  are 
then  securely  nailed  or  screwed  to  the  bearers.  Terra  cotta  tiles,  one  inch  in 
thickness,  seven  inches  wide,  and  twenty-four  inches  long,  are  now  laid  upon 
the  T-irons.  The  end  of  each  tile  will  catch  one  and  one-quarter  inch  upon 
the  iron.  The  sides  of  the  tank  are  formed  by  angular  tiles.  (The  shape  of 

165 


Bench   Construction 


these  tiles  can  best  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  cut  on  page  167.)  In  laying 
these  tiles,  they  are  bound  together  by  cementing  the  ends  as  fast  as  they  are 
laid. 

A  layer  of  Portland  cement,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  is 
flowed  over  the  tile,  forming  a  complete  water-tight  lining.  The  material  is 
made  by  using  the  best  quality  of  Portland  cement.  We  have  preferred  the 
Dyckerhoff  Portland  cement  for  this  purpose,  as  we  have  had  better  results 
from  it  than  from  other  brands  thus  far  tested.  Great  care  must  be  used  in 
preparing  this  cement,  the  proportions  being  two  parts  of  pure,  clean,  fine 


A,  E — Cypress  Strips 
B— 6  in.  Soil 
C— Water  Canals 
D —Porous  Tile 
F — Iron  Knee 
G — Tee  Iron  Bearer 
H — yx  inch  Cement 
Lining 


I— Terra  Cotta  Tile 
J — Yellow  Pine  Bearer 
K— Locust  Post 
L — Grouting 
M — Ground  Line 
N—Flow  Pipe 
O — Return  Pipe 


Cross  Section  Sub-Irrigation  Bench 


sharp  sand  to  one  part  of  cement.  The  sand  and  cement  are  mixed  when 
dry,  and  are  then  moistened  by  the  addition  of  water  until  of  the  proper 
consistency.  While  the  cement  is  setting  it  will  be  necessary  to  "trowel 
it  down,"  as  masons  call  it ;  that  is,  to  smooth  over  the  cement  several  times 
with  the  trowel.  This  is  done  in  order  to  prevent  fine  cracks  or  crevices 
working  into  the  cement. 

At  every  twenty  feet  an  expansion  joint  composed  of  sheet  lead  worked 
into  the  bench  is  made.    A  cement  bench  will  contract  and  expand  with  the 

166 


Bench   Construction 


variations  of  heat  and  cold  in  about  the  same  proportion  that  iron  will  con- 
tract and  expand.  If  the  contraction  and  expansion  are  not  provided  for  by 
means  of  expansion  joints,  many  cracks  will  come  into  the  benches  at  various 
points,  proving  a  great  annoyance  and  detriment  to  the  successful  working 
of  sub-irrigation.  By  means  of  these  expansion  joints  the  cracks  are  avoided, 
and  the  bench  can  be  maintained  perfectly  tight.  The  sides  of  the  bench  arc 
composed  of  cypress  strips  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  thickness,  and  six 
inches  wide,  which  are  fastened  firmly  to  the  iron  knees  by  means  of  round- 
headed  tinned  screws.  (See  drawing,  which  shows  the  construction  of  the 


Sub-Irrigation  Bench 
Tiles  in  place  ready  for  cementing 

sub-irrigation  bench  better  than  any  description  can  convey.)  It  is  our  prac- 
tice to  build  these  benches  in  sections  about  fifty  feet  in  length,  the  ends  of  the 
benches,  and  the  division  between  the  sections,  being  made  by  filling  in  with 
hard  brick,  set  in  the  same  cement  as  is  used  for  the  bottom.  In  the  center 
of  each  division  an  inch  pipe  is  fitted  in  the  bottom  of  the  bench  by  means  of 
a  collar.  This  pipe  is  dropped  through  a  hole  made  in  the  terra  cotta,  and  is 
held  firmly  in  place  by  short  lugs.  In  making  a  bench,  a  wooden  plug  is 
put  into  the  end  of  the  pipe  and  the  cement  is  run  around  the  plug  and  over 
the  iron  collar.  When  the  cement  hardens,  this  holds  the  pipe  firmly.  The 
wooden  plug  is  then  removed,  and  in  troweling  down,  the  cement  is  finished 
with  a  slope  toward  the  hole,  so  that  water  will  naturally  drain  off  the  bottom 
of  the  bench  through  the  pipe.  All  sub-irrigation  benches  should  be  built 

167 


Bench   Construction 

so  that  they  may  be  used  either  for  surface  watering  or  sub-irrigation.  When 
used  for  surface  watering,  the  valves  are  left  open,  and  the  soil  is  watered 
the  same  as  with  any  method  of  surface  watering.  The  surplus  water  will 
drain  off  through  the  valves. 

Apart   from  any  consideration   of  sub-irrigation,   these  benches  have 
the  following  advantages:  they  are  extremely  durable,  and  will  last  thirty 


Sub-Irrigation  Benches 
Ready  tor  Irrigating  Tile — Showing  manner  of  building  on  sloping  ground 

years  or  more  with  proper  care,  and  there  will  be  very  little  expense  in 
renewing  and  repairing  them.  If  yellow  locust  or  red  cedar  posts  are  used, 
they,  when  set  as  above  described,  will  also  last  fully  as  long  as  the  bench. 
The  yellow-pine  bearer,  which  is  thoroughly  painted  on  all  sides  and  the 
ends,  the  slots  in  which  the  iron  bearers  rest  being  also  painted,  will  likewise 

168 


Bench   Construction 

last  as  long  as  the  other  wooden  parts.  It  will  be  best  to  paint  the  iron 
bearers,  as  well  as  the  iron  knees,  with  at  least  one  coat  of  Princess  Metallic 
Paint.  If  two  coats  can  be  given,  so  much  the  better.  The  wooden  sides, 
composed  of  cypress,  if  painted  with  Princess  Metallic  Paint,  will  last  sev- 
eral years,  and  can  be  easily  renewed  by  taking  out  the  screws  and  putting 
on  a  new  piece.  The  iron  knees  should  be  occasionally  painted ;  at  least, 
whenever  the  sides  are  renewed.  Ordinary  stove  bolts,  with  countersunk 
heads,  are  used  in  holding  the  iron  knees  to  the  bearers. 

This  bench  is  a  better  one  for  growing  plants  under  the  surface-watering 
system  than  is  the  ordinary  wooden  bench.  It  possesses  one  cardinal  advan- 
tage, and  that  is  the  mass  of  moist  brick  which  underlies  the  soil.  This 
brick  serves  as  excellent  drainage,  and  it  also  holds  the  heat  which  arises 
from  the  steam  pipes,  giving  it  off  to  the  soil  in  a  modified  condition ;  and 
when  the 'steam  pipes  are  shut  off  during  the  daytime  this  heat  is  still  being 
slowly  passed  off  and  upward  through  the  soil.  Upon  benches  constructed 
in  this  manner  we  have  been  able  to  secure  better  average  results  than  those 
obtained  from  any  other  style  of  bench  which  we  have  as  yet  used ;  but 
under  the  ordinary  surface-watering  system  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the 
ventilated  tile  bench  first  described  will  be  practically  as  good.  The  disad- 
vantage of  this  sub-irrigation  bench  is  its  first  cost,  as  it  is  probably  more 
expensive  to  build  than  any  of  those  mentioned.  Such  a  bench  will  cost 
from  one  to  two  dollars  per  running  foot,  according  to  the  price  which  the 
builder  must  pay  for  his  posts  and  iron. 


169 


CHAPTER   XVII 

Sub-Irrigation 

ABOUT  the  year  1890  the  attention  of  florists  was  aroused  by  a  new 
method  of  watering  greenhouse  plants  grown  in  benches,  which  was 
originated  by  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  and  called  "sub-irriga- 
tion." Various  modifications  of  the  original  system  have  been  evolved  by 
other  experiment  stations,  chiefly  those  of  Wisconsin,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Indiana.  Briefly  described,  this  system  consists  of  introducing  water  under 
the  soil,  either  by  the  use  of  porous  tiles  laid  at  intervals  throughout  the 
soil,  or  by  constructing  the  bench  so  as  to  form  a  shallow,  water-tight  tank, 
in  the  bottom  of  which  are  placed  porous  tiles  of  various  forms ;  the  prin- 
ciple in  each  case  being  that  these  tiles  form  a  number  of  canals,  through 
which  water  is  introduced  to  the  bottom  of  the  bench,  under  the  soil,  and 
is  absorbed  by  the  tiles,  and  passes  upward  and  evaporates  through  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  by  capillary  attraction.  This  method  of  watering  plants 
has  been  vised  to  some  extent  by  the  forcers  of  vegetables  with  con- 
siderable success.  It  seems  to  be  gradually  gaining  ground  and  coming 
steadily  into  use,  although  its  universal  adoption  will  be  very  much  hin- 
dered by  the  large  expense  attending  the  construction  of  practical  sub- 
irrigation  benches. 

Sub-irrigation  exists  in  a  state  of  nature  wherever  water  is  either  stand- 
ing or  moving  underneath  the  soil ;  and  it  also  takes  place  at  the  banks  of 
rivers  or  streams  by  the  percolation  of  water  upward  through  the  soil  by 
capillary  attraction.  It  is  probable  that  a  considerable  percentage  of  the 
fertility  of  river  bottoms,  or  of  lands  lying  along,  and  contiguous  to,  constant 
streams  of  water,  is  due  in  some  measure  to  the  steady  source  of  moisture 
furnished  the  adjoining  soil  by  capillary  attraction,  herein  named  sub-irriga- 
tion. 

The  success  of  the  growers  of  celery  in  the  famous  celery  districts  of 
Michigan  is  due  in  a  large  degree  to  sub-irrigation,  as  the  best  celery  grounds 
are  reclaimed  swamps,  or  low  lands  lying  along  creek  bottoms,  which  have 
within  a  few  feet  underneath  the  surface  a  constant  flow  of  water,  which 

170 


Sub-Irrigation 

percolates  upward  through  the  soil,  affording  the  roots  of  the  plant  a  steady 
supply  of  moisture.  It  is  upon  such  lands  that  the  finest  crops  of  celery 
are  grown. 

In  many  parts  of  Europe,  notably  in  Holland,  and  to  a  small  extent  in 
the  cauliflower  districts  near  Erfurt,  Germany,  crops  are  grown  largely  upon 
sub-irrigated  land.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  reclaimed  districts  of 


Sub-Irrigation  Benches 
Testing  the  Cement  Tanks  for  leaks 

Holland,  which  produce  such  enormous  crops  of  fine  bulbs  and  such  quan- 
tities of  various  plants  and  shrubs.  In  these  districts,  which  lie  beneath  the 
sea  level,  and  which  would  be  overflowed  were  not  the  water  kept  down  by 
a  system  of  pumps  in  constant  operation  throwing  the  water  over  the 
dykes  into  the  sea,  plants  never  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture,  as  within  a 

171 


Sub-Irrigation 

short  distance  beneath  the  surface  a  continuous  supply  of  moisture  exists ; 
the  result  being  that  in  Holland  many  classes  of  bulbs,  shrubs  and  trees 
are  grown  better  and  cheaper  than  in  almost  any  other  portion  of  the  globe. 

Sub-irrigation  has  been  applied  to  the  growing  of  carnations  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  and  has  been  practiced  by  the  author  at  Queens  for  the 
past  seven  years.  The  results  of  the  experiments  carried  on  during  that 
period  have  been  rather  in  favor  of  the  sub-irrigation  bench  as  compared 
with  surface-watered  benches.  The  chief  objection  which  has  been  found 
to  the  former  benches  has  been  their  first  cost,  as  they  are  rather  too  expen- 
sive for  general  use  by  florists  with  limited  capital.  This,  to  some  extent, 
is  largely  overcome  by  the  permanency  of  the  structures  once  they  are 
installed,  as  a  sub-irrigation  bench,  properly  built,  will  last  as  long  as  ten 
ordinary  wooden  benches,  and  in  the  end  cost  considerably  less.  The  other 
objection  is  that  while  better  results  can  be  secured  if  sub-watered  benches 
are  properly  handled  by  skillful  growers  who  have  had  experience  with 
them,  the  work  requires  more  judgment  and  a  higher  degree  of  skill.  This  is 
largely  offset  by  the  fact  that,  with  plants  growing  upon  sub-irrigation 
benches,  a  grower  can  care  for  the  watering  of  two  or  three  times  the  area  of 
bench  surface  that  he  can  handle  on  the  surface-watered  bench,  as  much  less 
labor  is  needed  in  watering;  and  growers  who  have  once  mastered  the  man- 
agement of  such  benches  prefer  them  to  the  surface-watered  ones.  It  may  be 
said,  however,  that  in  the  hands  of  a  careless  grower  the  sub-irrigation  bench 
is  more  dangerous  than  those  surface-watered,  for  the  reason  that  when  once 
the  bench  is  over-watered  it  takes  a  long  time  to  dry  out  properly ;  whereas 
with  the  surface-watered  bench,  even  if  it  is  over-watered,  the  drainage 
from  the  bottom  and  the  evaporation  from  the  top,  and  the  stronger  degree 
of  heat  to  which  the  bottom  of  the  bench  is  subjected,  cause  the  water  to 
evaporate  much  faster  and  the  soil  to  dry  out  in  much  less  time  than  is 
the  case  with  an  over-watered  sub-irrigation  bench. 

The  soil  in  sub-irrigation  benches  is  generally  in  a  better  mechanical 
condition  than  in  a  surface-watered  bench,  providing  the  watering  has  been 
done  with  proper  skill  and  judgment.  As  before  said,  the  danger  with  the 
sub-irrigation  bench  lies  in  over-saturing  the  soil  with  water,  thereby 
destroying  the  young  feeding  roots.  However,  if  the  sub-irrigation  bench 
is  treated  properly,  the  plants  will  not  only  make  a  generally  better  growth 
than  upon  the  surface-watered  bench,  but  the  stems  will  be  longer,  the 
flowers  larger  and  of  better  substance,  and  the  crop  will  be  increased  a 
notable  percentage.  Where  sub-irrigation  benches  are  operated  as  they 
should  be,  the  lower  portion  of  the  soil  becomes  filled  with  roots,  and  these 

172 


Sub-Irrigation 

will  even  extend  down  through  the  crevices  of  the  brick  or  tile,  frequently 
partially  rilling  the  water  canals.  It  would  seem  to  be  unnecessary  to  state 
that  a  sub-irrigation  bench  should  not  be  intrusted  to  the  care  of  a  novice 
in  growing  carnations,  but  should  always  be  in  charge  of  some  skilled 
grower  who  has  had  experience  and  practice  in  its  management. 

When   sub-irrigation   was  first  broached  to  carnation  growers  it  was 
thought  by  some  that  it  would  prove  a  preventive  of  all  diseases,  and  that 


Section  of  Sub-Irrigation  Bench 

Showing  Carnations  growing  under  Sub-Irrigation  treatment — Note^how  roots 
extend  through  soil  to  floor  of  bench  and  crawl  over  bench  floor 

we  would  not  be  troubled  with  such  insects  as  red  spider;  but  this  has  not 
been  proved  by  actual  use,  for  red  spider,  once  introduced  upon  plants  in- 
a  sub-irrigation  bench,  propagates  there  the  same  as  upon  those  grown 
upon  other  types  of  benches.  But  it  may  be  said  in  favor  of  the  sub- 
irrigation  bench  that  plants  growing  thereon  are  in  a  stronger,  more  healthful 


173 


Sub-Irrigation 

condition,  and  for  this  reason  may  be  better  able  to  resist  and  overcome 
the  attacks  of  certain  classes  of  insects.  As  a  rule,  plants  are  less  affected 
by  stem-rot  upon  sub-irrigation  benches  than  upon  surface-watered  ones, 
but  this  cannot  be  stated  as  absolute. 

In  practice,  it  has  been  found  that  the  soil  upon  the  sub-irrigation  bench 


Sub-Irrigation    Tile 
Showing  Carnation  roots  growing  around  and  attached  to  bottom  ot  tile 

is  maintained  in  a  more  open,  friable  condition  than  upon  the  surface- 
watered  bench.  This  is  readily  understood,  because  the  water  evaporating 
and  passing  upward  through  the  soil  has  a  tendency  to  lift  or  lighten  the 
soil;  whereas  in  the  surface-watered  bench,  the  water,  being  poured  upon 

174 


Sub-Irrigation 

the  top  of  the  soil  generally  from  a  hose,  and  in  considerable  quantity,  passes 
downward  and  compacts  the  soil,  so  that  upon  a  surface-watered  bench  that 
has  been  some  months  in  operation  the  soil  frequently  becomes  almost  as 
hard  as  a  brick  when  dried. 

There  are  a  number  of  systems  of  constructing  sub-irrigation  benches. 


Sub-Irrigation  Bench 

Showing  manner  01  laying-  Terra  Cotta  foundation  and  protecting 
supporting  columns 

One  of  them  is  described  in  Chapter  XVI. ,  which  deals  with  bench  con- 
struction. Several  thousand  running  feet  of  these  benches  have  been  in 
operation  at  the  Cottage  Gardens  for  several  years  past,  and  have,  as  a  rule, 
produced  better  average  crops  of  flowers,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality, 
than  have  been  obtained  upon  the  surf  ace- watered  bench  with  the  same  varie- 

175 


Sub-Irrigation 

ties  of  plants,  grown  under  approximately  the  same  conditions.  In  some 
instances  the  product  of  the  sub-irrigation  bench  has  been  nearly  one-third 
greater  in  money  value  than  was  secured  from  the  surface-watered  bench, 
from  the  same  variety  grown  in  the  same  soil  and  in  the  same  house ;  that  is 
to  say,  as  near  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  the  same  conditions. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  determine  that  plants  grown  upon  sub-irrigation 
benches  are  more  exempt  from  disease  and  insects  than  those  grown  upon 
surface-watered  benches,  excepting,  as  before  stated,  that  the  plants  may 
be  in  a  more  vigorous  growing  condition,  and  thereby  able  to  withstand 
and  throw  off  the  attacks  of  insects  and  the  various  plant  diseases.  A  better 
average  growth  will  usually  be  secured  from  the  sub-irrigation  bench  where 
it  is  properly  handled,  for  the  reason  that  underneath  the  soil  there  is  always 
a  mass  of  moist  brick,  which  gives  off  the  water  very  slowly  to  the  soil 
when  the  bench  passes  to  the  dry  side.  This,  of  course,  affords  a  more 
constant  and  even  supply  of  moisture  for  the  plant's  use,  and  renders  impos- 
sible the  drying  out  of  the  bench  soil  from  underneath,  which  sometimes 
occurs  in  surface-watered  benches,  especially  in  very  cold  weather,  when 
high  firing  is  necessary.  One  of  the  principal  advantages  that  seems  to 
arise  from  the  use  of  sub-irrigation  benches  is  that  the  mass  of  cement  and 
tile  at  the  bottom  of  the  bench  absorbs  the  heat  from  the  steam  pipes  and 
passes  it  gradually  upward  through  the  soil,  so  that  where  high  firing 
occurs  this  shield  of  brick  or  tile  between  the  hot  steam  pipes  and  the  roots 
of  the  plants  is  a  decided  benefit.  Again,  when  steam  is  turned  off,  these 
tiles  remain  warm,  and  continue  to  give  off  a  moderate  heat  to  the  soil ;  and, 
in  my  opinion,  this  even,  moist  condition  at  the  bottom  of  the  bench,  and 
steady,  modified  heating  of  the  soil,  tend  to  a  more  regular  and  stronger 
growth  of  the  plants,  as  well  as  a  greater  production  of  flowers.  This  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  plants  upon  sub-irrigation  benches  usually  produce 
flowers  with  stems  three  to  four  inches  longer,  and  from  20  to  25  per  cent, 
stronger,  than  those  obtained  from  plants  growing  on  surface-watered 
benches. 


176 


FANCY    FLAKED 

PLATE  III.    CARNATION  PROSPERITY  (MILES) 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

Greenhouse  Heating 

AS  a  rule,  the  florist  should  consult  a  practical  heating  engineer  when 
installing  his  heating  plant.     Every  greenhouse  establishment  fur- 
nishes its  own  problems  and  peculiarities  in  heating.       These  can  be 
best  studied  out  and  provided  for  by  a  practical  man  experienced  in  heat- 
ing problems.     For  this  reason  I  will  not  attempt  to  give  advice  as  to  laying 
out  and  installing  heating  apparatus,  but  will  briefly  describe  the  most  im- 
portant systems  in  general  use  among  florists.     In  writing  this  chapter  I 
have  been  ably  assisted  by  Mr.  E.  S.  Titus,   of   Hempstead,    Long   Island, 
who  has  "had  ample  experience  in  installing  greenhouse  heating  apparatus, 
and  who  erected  the  one  in  operation  at  the  Cottage  Gardens. 

Modern  greenhouse  heating  is  accomplished  by  two  systems,  steam  and 
hot-water,  and  these  are  varied  in  several  ways. 

Hot  Water   Systems 

There  are  a  number  of  hot-water  systems  which  are  more  or  less  distinct 
in  character.  Three  of  these  are  widely  used  among  florists. 

The  Open  Expansion  Tank  Method 

The  first  to  be  described  is  the  old  system,  with  open  expansion  tanks, 
which  is  operated  under  low  pressure.  In  the  beginning,  a  type  of  heater  made 
of  cast  iron,  technically  called  a  one-piece  boiler,  was  almost  universally  used. 
This  type  of  heater,  although  somewhat  crude  in  design,  was  fairly  efficient. 
The  radiating  surface  employed  was  made  of  a  four-inch  heavy  cast-iron 
pipe.  The  expansion  of  water  was  taken  care  of  by  numerous  open  cast- 
iron  tanks  connected  to  the  highest  and  most  distant  points  of  the  heating 
pipes.  These  tanks  also  formed  a  medium  for  the  liberation  of  air  from 
the  water  contained  in  the  apparatus. 

On  account  of  the  low  expansion  tanks  this  system  necessarily  required 
a  low  head  of  water,  and  correspondingly  low  water  temperature,  the 
actual  boiling  point  being  only  slightly  above  the  normal,  or  212  degrees 
Fahr.  In  practice,  a  radiation  temperature  of  150  degrees  is  rarely  exceeded. 

177 


Greenhouse   Heating 

In  recent  years  a  type  of  heater,  made  of  cast  iron,  in  sections,  or  the  so-called 
sectional  boiler,  has  been  employed  quite  largely.  Notwithstanding  its 
crudeness,  and  the  cumbersome  appearance  of  this  system,  it  has  enjoyed 
a  remarkable  popularity  among  florists,  and  its  simplicity  of  operation,  and 
general  durability,  have  kept  it  in  the  front  rank  for  heating  florists'  estab- 
lishments of  moderate  size. 

The  Pressure  Method 

In  the  second,  a  "pressure  system,"  with  open  tanks,  which  are  set 
from  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  above  the  heater,  two-inch  and  two  and  one- 
half-inch  wrought  pipe  is  generally  used.  The  practical  working  of  this 
system  differs  in  reality  from  the  first  only  in  that  the  expansion  tank  is  set 
at  a  higher  elevation,  thus  increasing  the  pressure  and  boiling  point. 

Assuming  the  water  line  in  the  expansion  tank  to  be  thirty-five  feet 
above  the  top  of  the  heater,  a  pressure  of  fifteen  pounds  per  square  inch 
in  the  boiler  would  be  obtained,  thereby  raising  the  boiling  point  to  250 
degrees  Fahr.  While  the  old  style  of  one-piece  heater,  in  some  cases,  is 
not  sufficiently  strong  to  safely  withstand  this  increased  pressure,  the  sectional 
boilers  possess  ample  strength  to  do  so. 

The  cast-iron  sectional  boiler  is  so  well  known  that  little  comment 
thereon  is  necessary.  It  is  efficient,  fairly  economical  and  durable,  and  safe 
as  well.  Wrought-iron  or  steel  tubular  boilers  of  several  different  types 
are  also  largely  used  in  the  hot-water  system.  The  two  most  frequently 
met  with  are  the  horizontal-return  tubular  and  the  firebox  boiler,  of  loco- 
motive or  similar  type. 

Sectional  Boilers 

A  sectional  boiler  for  hot-water  heating  should  be  designed  with  the 
greatest  care.  If  the  sections  are  bolted  together,  the  bolts  should  in  no 
case  pass  through  the  water  spaces,  but  through  the  legs,  outside  of  the 
water  spaces.  It  is  very  important  in  hot-water  apparatus  that  friction 
•should  be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  It  has  been  found  by  actual  experience 
that  the  efficiency  of  some  apparatus  is  much  impaired  by  these  bolts.  If 
the  sections  are  connected  together  by  drums  and  nipples,  particular  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  size  of  these,  for  if  the  openings  in  the  con- 
necting drums  are  unduly  small  the  circulation  will  be  retarded,  and  this 
means  a  serious  impairment  in  the  efficiency  of  the  heater.  This  type  of 
boiler  should  have  about  one  square  inch  of  grate  surface  for  every  1.3  square 

178 


Greenhouse   Heating 

feet  of  radiating  surface.     If  a  fireman  is  on  duty  all  night,  the  proportion 
of  radiating  surface  can  be  somewhat  increased. 

Firebox  or  Locomotive  Boiler 

The  "firebox  boiler"  has  many  friends  among  florists.  Its  efficiency 
is  fair.  It  is  easy  to  fire,  and  is  safe.  It  has,  however,  some  weak  points. 
The  legs  of  a  locomotive  firebox  have  much  surface  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere, and,  in  consequence,  are  very  vulnerable  to  corrosive  effects.  A  green- 
house boiler  is  out  of  commission  about  half  the  year.  During  this  period 
of  rest  the  firebox  is  in  a  condition  of  extreme  exposure.  If  the  grates  are 
left  in,  with  an  accumulation  of  ashes  either  on  the  grate  or  in  the  pit,  in 
contact  with  the  boiler  legs,  they  will  absorb  moisture  from  the  air  and 
incite  active  corrosion  wherever  they  touch  the  boiler.  A  little  care  would 
practically  obviate  these  defects,  but  the  average  florist  stops  firing  as  soon 
as  warm  weather  renders  it  unnecessary,  and  probably  does  not  look  at 
his  heating  apparatus  again  until  the  approach  of  winter.  He  who  neglects 
a  locomotive  firebox  boiler  in  this  manner  will  soon  find  in  it  numerous 
holes. 

While  the  circulation  of  water  in  the  locomotive  type  of  boiler  is  not 
ideal,  it  is,  however,  fairly  good.  In  this  type  of  boiler  there  should  be 
not  less  than  three  openings,  or  inlets,  for  return  water;  that  is,  one  inlet 
in  each  of  the  three  sides  of  the  firebox,  which  openings  should  be  near 
the  bottom,  or  below  the  grate.  It  will  improve  the  circulation  if  these 
openings  are  connected  into  one  trunk. 

Horizontal  Tubular  Boilers 

The  horizontal  tubular  boiler  is  probably  the  most  efficient,  and  the 
safest  heater  for  general  florists'  use.  It  should  be  set  higher  at  the  front 
than  at  the  back.  This  elevation  should  be  not  less  than  twelve  nor  more 
than  twenty-four  inches.  The  boiler  should  be  built  longer  than  the  regu- 
lar type.  It  should  have  no  drum  on  top.  The  tubes  should  be  of  iron,  and 
not  steel.  The  shell  would  undoubtedly  last  longer  if  made  of  iron  rather 
than  steel,  but  it  is  now  practically  impossible  to  build  boiler  shells  of  iron, 
as  iron  plates  cannot  be  had  except  after  months  of  waiting,  and  then  at 
a  prohibitory  cost. 

During  the  inactive  season  steel  tubes  corrode  much  faster  than  iron, 
for  which  reason  the  increased  cost  of  iron  tubes  may  well  be  afforded. 
This  type  of  boiler,  which  is  the  ideal  one  for  hot-water  circulation,  is  effi- 

179 


Greenhouse   Heating 

cient,  safe,  and  economical.  The  inlet  should  be  in  the  bottom,  at  the 
rear  end.  The  hole  should  be  large,  and  reinforced  with  a  wrought  flange, 
riveted  on.  The  outlet  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  inlet,  and  situated 
in  the  top,  as  close  to  the  front  end  as  practicable.  In  this  case  there  is  a 
natural  flow  of  water  from  the  inlet  at  the  lower  end  of  the  boiler  to  the 
outlet  at  the  upper  end ;  a  natural  rising  of  the  expanding  water  through 
an  unobstructed  space,  with  an  easy  flow,  like  the  current  of  a  river.  In 
all  the  other  types  this  flow  is  more  or  less  obstructed. 

Practical  tests  made  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  friction  in  different 
types  of  boilers  have  demonstrated  that  the  horizontal  tubular  boiler,  set 
as  above  described,  with  a  carefully-designed  radiating  system,  will  respond 
readily  to  hard  firing,  and  show  at  high  temperature  a  difference  of  not 
more  than  three  degrees  Fahr.  between  the  outward  flow  and  the  return. 
The  writer  has  never  been  able  to  get  anywhere  near  as  good  a  result  in 
any  sectional  or  firebox  boiler.  The  florist  seeking  a  hot-water  heater  can 
make  no  serious  mistake  in  selecting  any  one  of  the  three  boilers  described, 
as  all  do  good  work. 

The  Closed  or  Perkins  Method 

We  will  now  consider  the  third  system  of  hot-water  heating,  namely, 
the  so-called  closed,  or  Perkins  method.  This  differs  from  the  other  two 
alluded  to  above  by  having  an  increased  pressure.  In  this  system,  which 
is  sealed  tight,  the  usual  installation  includes  an  expansion  tank  filled  with 
air.  After  the  apparatus  has  been  fired  sufficiently  to  expel  all  the  air  from 
the  water,  the  entire  apparatus  is  sealed  air-tight.  The  air  in  the  expan- 
sion tank  provides  an  elastic  medium  which  allows  for  expansion  of  the 
water  contained,  when  heated.  There  is  but  one  point  gained — if  it  be  a 
gain — and  that  is,  the  increased  pressure  will  allow  of  a  higher  water  tem- 
perature in  the  radiating  coils.  The  entire  apparatus  is  vulnerable  to  leaks, 
and  in  practice  is  very  complicated,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  excuse, 
or  reason,  for  its  employment  by  florists.  The  second  system  described  will 
allow  of  a  water  temperature  of  212  degrees  and  over.  Few  florists  care 
for  more. 

The  Pump  Method 

Before  passing  the  subject  of  hot-water  heating  it  may  be  interesting 
to  mention  another  type  of  apparatus  which  may  be  adapted  to  such  installa- 
tions. I  allude  to  a  system  in  which  the  circulation  of  hot  water  is  impelled 
by  mechanical  force,  such  as  a  steam  or  belt-driven  pump,  which  may  be 
operated  either  by  an  engine,  an  electric  motor,  or  a  water  motor.  In  the- 

180 


Greenhouse    Heating 

writer's  opinion  there  are  many  features  about  a  hot-water  apparatus  of 
this  type  which  especially  commend  it  for  the  heating  of  large  greenhouse 
establishments.  Inasmuch  as  the  factor  of  friction  in  the  boiler  and  pipe 
circulation  is  overcome  by  mechanical  force,  there  will  be  no  longer  the 
necessity  to  hold  fast  to  the  large  water  mains  and  runs  which  are  abso- 
lutely essential  to  every  hot-water  heating  apparatus  in  which  the  circu- 
lation is  impelled  by  heat  and  the  resulting  expansion  of  water.  If  we 
assume  that  the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  outflow  and  the 
inflow  of  the  boiler  is  less  than  19  degrees  Fahr.,  say,  outflow  180  degrees 
and  inflow  170  degrees,  a  cubic  foot  of  water  would  increase  in  weight 
22-100,  or  an  increase  of  .0036  per  cent,  per  pound.  Assuming  the  appa- 
ratus to  contain  one  ton  of  water  at  the  point  of  entrance  to  the  boiler,  this 
ton  would  be  increased  by  7.2  pounds.  Allow  a  fall  of  six  feet  in  the  appa- 
ratus, and  we  have  a  power  of  43.2  pounds  to  keep  one  ton  of  water  in 
motion,  to  overcome  the  friction  in  the  heater  and  a  long  run  of  pipe  con- 
taining many  short  bends. 

It  is  this  small  and  insignificant  force  which  the  engineer  has  to  hus- 
band so  carefully  in  order  to  make  the  hot-water  job  efficient  and  suc- 
cessful. The  pump,  as  a  compelling  force,  does  away  with  all  this  refine- 
ment of  calculation,  and  he  is  free  to  use  such  small  radiating  pipes  as  one 
and  one-quarter-inch,  one  and  one-half-inch,  or  two-inch,  if  he  so  elects. 
The  mains  may  be  materially  reduced  in  size.  In  short,  we  have  now  an 
apparatus  as  compact  and  neat  in  appearance  as  any  steam  system  can  be; 
a  system  absolutely  noiseless,  and  under  almost  perfect  control.  The  heater 
might  be  managed  to  maintain  automatically  a  boiler  temperature  propor- 
tioned to  the  requirements  caused  by  variations  in  the  outdoor  tempera- 
ture. The  operator  controls  the  heat  in  a  block  of  houses  by  regulating 
the  speed  of  the  pump.  The  heat  in  each  individual  house,  or  side  of  a 
house,  is  regulated  by  opening  or  closing  the  valves  on  the  runs,  which 
should  be  gate  valves. 

In  a  layout  on  this  system,  pipes  could  be  run  practically  regardless 
of  height  in  pitch  in  relation  to  boiler,  which  in  the  other  three  systems 
must  be  carefully  considered.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  such  a 
system  leads  slightly  away  from  the  highest  economy,  for  having  started 
out  to  overcome  friction  by  mechanical  force,  one  must  consider  that  this 
increase  of  friction  means  an  absorption  of  heat  units  from  the  furnace; 
that  is  to  say.  whatever  excess  of  friction  there  is  must  be  measured  by  its 
equivalent  in  coal.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  this  loss  is  so  slight,  and 

181 


Greenhouse   Heating 

the  general  efficiency  and  easy  control  of  the  plant  would  be  so  much 
increased,  that  such  loss  should  not  be  considered  as  a  bar  to  its  use. 

Such  a  plant  could  be  made  a  combination  steam  and  water  installa- 
tion, using  steam  in  cold  weather  and  water  in  mild  weather.  As  a  tem- 
perature of  200  to  230  degrees  Fahr.  could  be  readily  maintained  throughout 
the  entire  radiation  surface  by  water,  there  seems  to  be  little  reason  for 
making  steam  a  factor  in  it.  There  would,  theoretically,  be  less  friction  in 
the  steam,  though  air  valves  and  joints  would  bring  the  two  systems  about 
on  a  level  as  to  economy. 

With  care  and  watchfulness,  a  temperature  of  280  degrees  would  be 
entirely  practicable  at  fifty  pounds  pressure.  Given  an  installation  of  this 
design,  to  start  with  you  have  an  apparatus  perfectly  adapted  to  all  weath- 
ers; in  mild  weather,  a  slow  fire  and  a  slow  movement  of  the  pump;  in 
cold  weather,  a  rapid  fire  and  a  more  rapid  movement  of  the  pump. 

In  this  installation  the  pipes  could  be  of  the  same  size  throughout  as 
with  the  steam  system,  with  the  material  advantage  that  the  mains  could 
be  run  practically  at  will,  and  with  less  regard  to  location,  than  with  the 
usual  gravity  system.  With  the  usual  valves,  the  fireman  would  have  per- 
fect control  over  his  entire  system.  The  loss  of  heat  units  in  the  power 
required  to  move  the  water  through  the  apparatus  would  probably  be  no 
more  than  is  absorbed  by  the  pump  in  lifting  and  returning  the  water  of 
condensation  in  the  positive  return  steam  apparatus. 

Steam  Heating  Systems 

There  are  three  systems  of  steam  heating  which  are  common  among 
florists :  First,  the  Gravity  System;  second,  the  Positive  Return  System; 
third,  the  Vacuum  System. 

The  Gravity  Method 

The  gravity  system,  as  its  name  implies,  is  dependent  on  the  weight 
of  its  condensed  steam,  or  water,  for  the  proper  return  of  such  condensa- 
tion to  the  boiler,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  desirable  of  all  systems  for  the 
average  florist.  Indeed,  this  is  the  only  steam-heating  system  which  fully 
meets  the  necessities  and  numerous  exactions  of  the  florist  who  does  not 
employ  a  night  fireman,  his  requirement  being  a  simple  apparatus  which 
needs  comparatively  little  attention,  and  which  should,  in  a  measure,  be 
automatic  in  action.  The  radiating  surface  should  be  readily  controlled  by 
the  operator.  The  boiler  should  be  easy  to  fire,  and  the  entire  apparatus 
durable,  with  no  features  in  construction  likely  to  need  frequent  or  costly 

182 


Greenhouse   Heating 

repairs.  The  gravity  system  of  steam  heating  fully  meets  the  above-men- 
tioned requirements.  The  apparatus  is  made  automatic  by  draft  regulators, 
which  are  controlled  by  steam  pressure.  The  regulators  are  adjusted  to 
different  pressures,  allowing  a  change  of  steam  temperature  to  suit  the 
weather.  Here  the  automatic  feature  ends.  The  fireman  must  do  the  rest, 
keeping  a  clean  fire,  and  replenishing  with  coal  at  the  proper  intervals.  The 
proper  distribution  of  heat  must  be  controlled  by  opening  or  closing  the 
valves  until  the  required  temperature  is  obtained. 

The  installation  of  such  a  plant  is  comparatively  simple,  and  does  not 
require  more  than  ordinary  mechanical  knowledge.  The  constructor  should 
carefully  consider  the 'following  salient  points  in  making  his  layout  for  the 
job:  The  boilers  should  be  set  with  care,  on  solid  foundations.  A  sub- 
stantial chimney,  with  dimensions  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  grate, 
should  be  provided.  A  good  draught  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  no 
efficient  heating  apparatus  can  be  maintained  with  a  poor  draught.  The 
steam  mains  should  rise  directly  from  the  boiler,  and  pitch  away  from  it, 
and  the  size  of  the  mains  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  radiating 
surface  carried  in  the  coils. 

There  should  be  no  deviation  from  the  rule  which  disallows  any  oppo- 
sition of  steam  and  water  currents.  All  water  of  condensation  should  travel 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  steam,  and  never  against  it.  The  lowest  parts, 
or  ends,  of  the  steam  runs  should  not  be  less  than  twenty-four  inches  above 
the  water  line  of  the  boiler.  If  forty-eight  inches  can  be  obtained,  so  much 
the  better.  The  check  valve  on  the  return  main  at  the  boiler  should  be 
of  the  best  construction,  and  easy  of  operation,  be  kept  properly  cleaned 
and  in  order.  The  radiation  pipes  are  usually  one  and  one-quarter  inch 
or  one  and  one-half  inch.  The  steamfitter  should  be  careful  to  allow  for 
expansion  of  the  pipes  by  heat ;  otherwise,  frequent  leaks  will  occur  at  points 
where  this  expansive  strain  exerts  itself  most. 

The  Positive  Return  Method 

The  second,  or  positive  return  system,  differs  from  the  first  in  that 
the  water  of  condensation  is  returned  to  the  boiler  by  positive  means,  such 
as  a  steam  pump  or  injector.  This  system  does  not  differ  materially  in 
layout  from  the  first,  except  that  the  factor  of  friction  is  not  so  important, 
and  the  size  of  the  steam  mains  is  not  so  arbitrary.  The  steam  mains  may 
be  considerably  smaller  than  in  the  ordinary  gravity  system. 

There  are  a  number  of  plans  employed  in  the  installation  of  this  sys- 
tem. One  plan  is  to  carry  a  boiler  pressure  of  one  and  one-half  to  ten 

183 


Greenhouse   Heating 

pounds,  and  also  some  other  power,  such  as  an  auxiliary  boiler  at  higher 
pressure,  or  electricity,  to  drive  the  pump  which  returns  the  water  of  con- 
densation. In  some  cases  the  water  of  condensation  is  conveyed  to  an  open 
well,  or  reservoir,  and  from  there  into  the  boiler.  Another  plan,  and  a 
more  common  one,  is  to  carry  the  return  water  directly  into  a  receiver  at 
the  suction  end  of  the  pump.  If  a  steam  pump  is  used,  it  is  of  a  special 
construction  for  this  purpose,  and  works  automatically,  forcing  a  constant 
stream  of  return  water  into  the  boiler,  the  volume  of  which  will  vary  with 
the  weather.  This  water  is  frequently  made  to  return  into  the  receiver  of 
the  pump  relieved  of  pressure ;  that  is,  after  the  water  reaches  the  receiver, 
any  steam  vapor  which  collects  in  the  receiver  is  allowed  to  escape.  This 
plan  makes  a  return  water  temperature  of  more  than  212  degrees  Fahr. 
impossible,  and  the  usual  temperature  is  much  below  this.  For  reasons 
which  will  be  given  further  on,  any  plan  which  reduces  the  pressure  on 
return  water,  between  the  radiation  pipes  and  the  boiler,  is  not  favored  by 
the  writer. 

A  higher  boiler  pressure,  viz.,  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  pounds,  is  more 
commonly  employed  in  operating  the  positive  return  system.  The  boiler 
pressure  must  be  sufficient  to  properly  work  the  steam  pump.  If  a  lower 
pressure  is  desired,  the  steam  cylinder  of  the  pump  must  be  made  larger. 

With  this  increased  pressure,  an  auxiliary  boiler  is  not  required.  The 
return  pump  is  connected  direct  to  the  boiler.  It  is  not  desirable  to  carry 
this  high  pressure  into  the  radiation  pipe.  A  reducing  valve  is  a  neces- 
sary adjunct  to  the  boiler  in  this  system.  This  valve  is  entirely  automatic, 
and  can  be  adjusted  to  any  pressure  from  one  to  ten  pounds,  or  more,  at 
the  will  of  the  operator,  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  weather. 

This  method  of  positive  return,  as  applied  to  steam  heating,  is  adapted 
to  large  plants  only.  It  is  not  contended  that  it  is  the  equal  in  economy  to 
the  so-called  gravity  system.  There  are  inherent  in  the  system  certain 
features  which,  in  spite  of  the  best  efforts  of  the  engineer  to  prevent  it, 
absorb  a  considerable  number  of  heat  units,  which  the  gravity  system  is 
not  guilty  of.  To  start  with,  there  is  a  slight  friction  loss  in  the  reducing 
valve ;  then,  after  the  return  water  reaches  the  pump,  there  is  still  another 
loss,  for  power  is  required  to  drive  this  pump.  Notwithstanding  this  slight 
loss,  which  cannot  be  entirely  eliminated,  t'he  positive  system  is  quite  popu- 
lar with  florists.  It  is  not  within  the  writer's  knowledge  that  any  florist 
who  has  used  it  has  condemned  it  on  account  of  poor  economy.  To  attain 
the  best  results  from  this  method  the  return  water  should  be  conveyed  direct 
to  the  receiver  of  the  pump  without  any  diminution  of  pressure;  that  is, 

184 


Greenhouse   Heating 

there  should  be  no  relief  of  pressure  in  the  receiver,  but  full  pressure  of  the 
radiation  pipes  should  be  maintained,  less  such  slight  loss  as  may  occur 
from  friction  in  the  radiation  pipes.  Assuming  that  in  zero  weather  a 
pressure  of  ten  pounds  of  steam  is  being  carried  in  the  radiation  pipes, 
the  return  water,  if  conveyed  to  the  receiver  of  the  pump  at  that  pressure, 
will  have  a  temperature  of  about  240  degrees  Fahr. 

If,  in  an  emergency,,  a  pressure  of  twenty  pounds  is  used,  there  will  be 
in  the  receiver  a  temperature  of  about  259  degrees.  Take  off  this  press- 
ure in  the  receiver  and  the  temperature  drops  to  212  degrees.  This  entails 
a  loss  of  heat  which  is  too  great  to  be  permitted.  Therefore,  no  florist 
can  afford  to  return  the  water  of  condensation  into  the  receiver  at  any 
reduction  of  the  normal  radiation  pressure.  Inasmuch  as  heating  plants 
of  this  design  cannot  be  safely  installed  without  the  advice  and  superin- 
tendence of  a  competent  engineer,  there  is  no  reason  why  this  problem 
should  not  be  properly  taken  care  of.  The  temperature  of  either  of  the 
pressures  considered,  ten  pounds  or  twenty  pounds,  is  too  high  for  any- 
thing but  a  metal-packed  pump.  The  water  end  of  such  pump  should  be 
bronze  or  brass-fitted  throughout.  Rubber  valves  will  not  do.  The  water 
end  must  be  all  metal.  The  pumping  of  water  at  such  high  temperature 
involves  upon  the  engineer  more  than  ordinary  care,  and,  perhaps,  more 
than  ordinary  experience  and  skill.  It  is,  however,  the  writer's  experi- 
ence that  when  the  necessary  conditions  are  properly  met  and  provided 
for,  returning  the  water  at  the  temperature  here  named  is  just  as  reliable, 
and  the  pump  will  work  just  as  well,  as  when  pumping  water  at  200 
degrees,  or  less.  We  have  never  noticed  but  what  the  ordinary  greenhouse 
fireman  handled  either  pump — the  high  or  low  temperature — equally  well. 

Pump  Exhaust 

The  exhaust  of  the  steam  pump  should  be  directed  into  the  steam 
main  which  supplies  the  radiation  pipes.  This  is  a  material  saving,  and 
should  not  be  neglected.  The  pump  exhaust  should  have  an  outlet  to 
the  atmosphere.  A  valve  on  each  pipe  will  give  the  operator  control,  enabling 
him  to  turn  the  exhaust  either  way.  In  practice,  the  exhaust  will  very 
rarely  be  turned  into  the  atmosphere. 

The  Vacuum  Method 

The  third  system  is  that  which  has  been  aptly  named  the  vacuum 
system.  It  possesses  many  features  which  commend  it  in  a  special  way 
to  the  florist.  In  this  sstem  all  air  valves  are  eliminated  from  the  entire 


Greenhouse   Heating 

apparatus.  As  is  well  known,  these  air  valves  are  more  or  less  compli- 
cated, requiring  considerable  attention,  and  the  greenhouse  operator  never 
feels  sure  that  they  are  operating  properly  until  he  goes  around  and  exam- 
ines and  tests  them. 

In  the  vacuum  system  the  operator  would  not  have  this  trouble,  for 
the  purpose  of  one  of  the  pumps,  which  we  call  the  vacuum  pump,  is  to 
exhaust  all  air  from  the  apparatus,  which  must  be  effectively  done.  The 
operator  having  accomplished  this  before  turning  on  the  steam,  knows  that 
the  pressure  of  his  boiler  must  fill  the  most  remote  part  of  the  radiation 
surface. 

There  is  another  advantage  in  this  system  which  is  most  commend- 
able. Steam  at  a  very  low  pressure,  a  mere  vapor,  in  fact,  without 
pressure,  can  be  admitted  into  the  radiation  pipes  and  the  quantity  throt- 
tled at  the  valve,  a  feature  which  makes  the  heat  as  controllable  as  hot 
water,  as  in  either  case  the  controlling  power  of  the  valve  is  practically 
the  same.  The  water  of  condensation  is  returned  in  practically  the  same 
manner  as  described  in  the  positive  system.  In  fact,  the  vacuum  system 
may  be  termed  a  positive  system  without  air  valves.  There  are  numerous 
modifications  of  the  vacuum  system.  A  description  of  them  will,  how- 
ever, have  but  little  interest  for  florists.  This  method  of  steam  heating 
probably  more  efficiently  meets  the  requirements  of  large  florists'  estab- 
lishments than  any  other. 

The  Single-Pipe  Method 

The  so-called  single-pipe  system  is  largely  used  in  the  heating  of 
buildings.  It  is  not  very  popular  among  florists.  We  think  it  possesses 
so  few  features  commending  it  to  the  florist  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to 
devote  space  to  a  description  of  it  here. 

Types  of   Steam   Boilers 

The  type  of  boiler  which  is  adapted  for  steam  use  should  differ  in 
construction  from  the  hot-water  boiler ;  that  is,  a  boiler  which  may  give 
excellent  results  in  hot-water  practice  is  not  necessarily  as  efficient  in  steam 
practice.  The  circulation  of  a  hot-water  boiler  is  entirely,  or  should  be 
entirely,  a  continuous  flow  from  the  bottom  toward  the  top.  There  should 
be  no  return  current  in  the  interior  of  the  hot-water  boiler.  The  steam 
boiler  has  a  circulation  almost  entirely  within  itself.  The  water  should 
be  in  constant  motion,  rising  upward  in  the  hottest  part  and  returning 
down  the  coolest  portions.  This  gives  the  steam  bubbles  a  chance  to  escape 

1 86 


Greenhouse   Heating 

into  the  steam  space  without  causing  violent  ebullition  in  the  interior  of 
the  boiler.  The  return  tubular,  the  locomotive,  the  cast-iron  sectional,  and 
some  marine  types  of  boilers,  are  used  for  greenhouse  heating.  Many  adher- 
ents of  each  type  are  to  be  found. 

Fuels 

The  leading  fuels  that  may  be  considered  within  reach  of  the  florist 
are:  Bituminous  Coal,  Coke,  Anthracite,  and  Crude  Petroleum,  known 
as  Fuel  Oil. 

Bituminous  Coal 

A  good  grade  of  bituminous  coal,  skillfully  stoked,  is  probably  the 
cheapest  fuel  available  for  greenhouse  heating.  It  has  the  disadvantage 
of  creating  a  lot  of  dirt  and  soot,  which  clouds  the  greenhouse  glass  and 
reduces  its  efficiency  to  some  extent  where  flowers  are  desired. 

For  greenhouse  heating  purposes  the  free-burning  grades  of  bituminous 
coals,  known  as  coking  coals,  that  produce  the  minimum  of  smoke  when 
burned,  are  superior  to  the  block,  or  hard  bituminous  splint  coals.  The 
coals  now  being  mined  in  West  Virginia  are,  many  of  them,  especially 
adapted  for  greenhouse  heating  purposes,  notably  those  known  as  the  New 
River  (or  Fire  Creek  vein)  and  the  Pocahontas  vein.  The  Kanawha  River 
coals  mined  from  the  Cedar  Grove  seam,  the  Kelly's  Creek,  or  No.  5  seam, 
and  the  Blacksburg  seam,  are  superior  coals  for  steam-heating  purposes. 
They  are  free-burning,  leave  but  little  ash  and  clinker,  produce  relatively 
little  smoke,  are  rich  in  carbon,  being  also  comparatively  free  from  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  the  presence  of  which  in  a  fuel  shortens  the  life  of  the 
boiler  tubes  and  rapidly  disintegrates  the  grate  bars  of  furnaces. 

Anthracite 

Anthracite  is  next  in  economy  to  the  free-burning  West  Virginia  bitu- 
minous coals,  and  when  it  can  be  procured  at  reasonable  prices  is  much 
superior  for  florists'  use  on  account  of  its  cleanliness  and  the  ease  with 
which  it  may  be  handled  and  fired.  It  is  delivered  in  several  sizes  suitable 
for  steam  purposes.  Where  a  high  steam  pressure  is  carried,  and  a  fireman 
constantly  in  attendance,  the  smaller  sizes,  such  as  rice,  buckwheat  and  pea, 
are  more  economical  than  the  larger  sizes,  known  as  egg  and  broken ;  but 
in  low-pressure  steam  plants,  and  in  hot-water  plants,  egg  and  broken  coal 
are  more  desirable.  The  smaller  sizes  give  best  results  when  the  fire  is 
carried  thinly,  and  is  evenly  spread  over  the  grate,  keeping  a  clean  grate 
and  a  lively  draught.  The  larger  sizes  are  suitable  for  plants  where  a 

187 


Greenhouse   Heating 

fireman  is  not  in  constant  attendance,  as  heavy,  thick  fires  may  be  carried, 
which  endure  for  a  long  period  without  attention.  Thick  fires  cannot  be 
considered  economical,  as  they  exist  by  slow  combustion,  which  allows  much 
of  the  gases  contained  in  the  coal  to  escape  without  being  burned.  Quick 
combustion  is  productive  of  the  greatest  economy.  Anthracite,  when 
burned,  produces  very  little  smoke,  for  which  reason  it  is  superior  to  bitu- 
minous coals  for  the  florist's  use. 

Coke 

When  it  can  be  procured  at  reasonable  prices,  coke  may  be  ranked 
with  anthracite ;  but  it  is  not  largely  used  in  greenhouse  heating,  prob- 
ably on  account  of  its  cost. 

Crude  Petroleum,  or  Fuel  Oil 

At  frequent  intervals  the  announcement  is  made  in  the  public  press 
that  fuel  oil  is  about  to  displace  coal  for  boiler-heating  purposes ;  but  for 
some  reason  the  claim  is  never  made  good,  and  coal  remains  practically  in 
possession  of  the  field.  Some  nine  years  ago  I  made  an  exhaustive  test 
of  burning  fuel  oil,  comparing  the  results  obtained  with  those  secured  by 
using  coal,  in  the  same  boilers.  The  result  in  economy  was  so  overwhelm- 
ingly in  favor  of  coal  that  I  abandoned  the  use  of  the  oil  at  once;  and  I 
make  bold  to  declare  it  as  my  opinion  that  but  little  economy  will  be  found  in 
burning  fuel  oil  for  greenhouse  heating  whenever  coal  may  be  procured 
at  a  cost  not  exceeding  six  dollars  per  ton. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  again  advise  every  florist  to  consult  a  practical 
engineer  when  installing  his  heating  apparatus. 


188 


CHAPTER  XIX 

Carnations  for  Summer  Blooming  and  Pot  Culture 

AS  a  general  rule,  the  carnation,  when  grown  for  Summer  blooming,, 
does  not  do  well  in  our  dry  climate.  While  crops  of  very  fair  flowers- 
may  be  secured  during  the  months  of  June  and  September,  and,  at 
times,  extending  through  the  month  of  October  and  even  into  November, 
the  droughts  which  usually  occur  in  July  and  August  are  a  serious  detri- 
ment, as  during  these  dry  spells  thrips  and  red  spider  frequently  destroy  the 
blooms,  and  seriously  injure  the  plants.  Probably  in  more  northern  parts 
of  the  country,  and  in  locations  contiguous  to  the  Great  Lakes  or  other  large 
bodies  of  water,  which  modify  and  moisten  the  climate,  the  carnation  will 
do  well  when  grown  as  a  Summer  flowering  plant. 

In  order  to  secure  good  crops  of  flowers  in  the  open  ground,  plants 
grown  from  early  struck  cuttings,  taken  from  early  blooming  varieties, 
must  be  used.  While  many  -of  the  early  flowering  sorts  do  well  outside  as- 
Summer  bloomers,  but  comparatively  few  of  the  late  varieties  will  prove 
at  all  satisfactory  in  this  respect,  excepting  in  localities  where  climatic  con- 
ditions during  the  months  of  September  and  October  are  favorable. 

The  best  time  to  strike  cuttings  for  this  purpose  is  generally  in  October, 
November,  and  the  early  part  of  December.  These  cuttings  should  be  potted 
up  when  well  rooted,  and  kept  in  cool  houses  during  the  winter,  shift- 
ing the  plants  whenever  the  pots  have  become  well  filled  with  roots.  It  is 
essential  that  this  shifting  should  be  done  at  the  proper  time  in  order  to 
keep  the  plants  in  growing  condition  ;  for  if  neglected,  and  allowed  to  become 
potbound  and  stunted  at  any  period,  the  plants  will  give  inferior  results. 

From  the  middle  of  April  to  the  ist  of  May,  the  plants  should  be  set 
into  the  open  ground.  At  this  time,  if  proper  growth  has  been  made,  they 
will  be  in  four  to  five-inch  pots,  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  variety ;  and' 
should  have  been  pinched  back  at  least  once,  and  preferably  twice.  Each 
shoot  should  be  pinched  back  as  soon  as  it  shows  a  disposition  to  develop  a 
bud. 

In  planting  out,  the  balls  of  earth  should  be  disturbed  no  more  than- 
is  necessary  to  soften  them  up  in  order  to  prevent  hardening,  so  that  growth- 

189 


Carnations  for  Summer  Blooming 

may  not  be  materially  checked.  Commercial  growers  would  do  well  to  plant 
their  Summer  blooming1  carnations  in  beds  not  exceeding  four  feet  in  width, 
with  two-foot  paths  between  the  beds.  The  summer  treatment  is  the  same 
as  that  for  carnations  intended  for  winter  flowering,  except  that  stopping, 
or  pinching  out  the  flower  buds  should  be  omitted. 

During  the  hot,  dry  months  of  July  and  August,  both  red  spider  and 
thrips  are  apt  to  seriously  damage  the  flowers.  Of  late  years,  the  thrips 
has  become  such  a  serious  pest  in  the  Eastern  States  that  attempts  at  flower- 
ing carnations  in  the  open  ground  are  liable  to  be  comparative  failures. 
There  seems  to  be  no  effective  remedy  for  this  insect  that  can  be  practically 
applied  to  plants  growing  in  the  open  ground.  If  the  thrips  or  red  spider 
once  gets  possession  of  the  field,  the  crop  will  frequently  be  ruined. 

While  the  following  list  of  varieties  will  be  found  suitable  for  outdoor 
blooming,  many  other  sorts  may  do  as  well,  or  even  better  in  some  places, 
each  grower  determining  by  practical  experiment  the  kinds  best  suited  for 
his  locality : 

Pink — William  Scott,  Morning  Glory,  Floriana,  Mrs.  Roosevelt,  Mrs. 
Thomas  W.  Lawson,  and  Genevieve  Lord. 

White — Alaska,  Mrs.  Fisher,  and  Lizzie  McGowan. 

Scarlet — Portia,  J.  H.  Manley,  and  G.  H.  Crane. 

Crimson — General  Maceo,  General  Gomez,  Governor  Roosevelt,  and 
Harry  Fenn. 

Yellozv — Golden  Beauty,  and  Eldorado. 

Variegated — Stella,  Mrs.  George  M.  Bradt,  and  Viola  Allen. 

Bedding  Carnations 

While  the  American  climate  is  not  generally  favorable  for  flowering 
carnations  in  summer,  some  very  nice  effects  in  bedding  may  be  secured 
by  a  judicious  selection  of  varieties.  Planting  moderate-sized  beds  of  one 
variety  usually  produces  the  best  results. 

The  propagation  and  treatment  of  bedding  carnations  are  as  already 
described.  But  few  varieties  are  suitable  for  bedding.  Portia  and  J.  H. 
Manley  are  probably  the  best  scarlets  for  that  purpose ;  the  best  whites  being 
Alaska  and  Mrs.  Fisher ;  Governor  Roosevelt  and  General  Gomez  for  crim- 
son; Stella  for  variegated;  William  Scott  and  Floriana  for  pink.  Most  of 
the  yellows  are  not  suitable  for  bedding  purposes,  unless  one  is  willing  to 
wait  for  flowers  until  the  months  of  September  and  October. 

190 


Carnations  for  Summer  Blooming  and  Pot  Culture 
Hardy  Carnations 

Comparatively  few  hardy  carnations  are  grown  in  this  country,  except 
upon  the  Pacific  slope,  where  they  seem  to  do  very  well.  The  attacks  of 
red  spider  and  thrips,  in  connection  with  the  high  temperature  prevailing 
during  July  and  August,  render  success  in  growing  this  section  of  the  Dian- 
thus  family  very  precarious  in  the  United  States.  Frequently,  during  extreme 
cold  winters,  and  especially  where  much  freezing  and  thawing  occur,  the 
plants  will  be  heaved  out  of  the  ground  and  so  seriously  injured  as  to  pro- 
duce few  blooms  the  season  following.  Probably  a  hardy  race  might  be  bred 
from  our  winter  blooming  carnations  by  leaving  large  numbers  of  seedlings 
to  stand  over  winter  in  the  field,  and  propagating  stock  from  such  plants  as 
survived. 

Carnation  plants  that  are  to  stand  in  the  open  ground  throughout  the 
winter  should  be  protected  with  a  light  mulch,  which  may  consist  of  Autumn 
leaves,  chopped  straw,  or  very  coarse  manure  that  may  also  be  mixed  with 
the  leaves  or  straw.  This  will  serve  to  enrich  the  ground,  and  to  promote 
a  stronger  growth  the  following  spring.  The  soil  in  which  carnations  for 
summer  blooming  are  grown  should  be  made  rich,  and  at  least  eighteen  inches 
deep ;  and  provision  should  be  made  so  that  the  beds  may  receive  an  ample 
supply  of  water  during  the  heated  months,  when  droughts  prevail. 

Carnations  for  Pot  Culture 

It  is  with  considerable  diffidence  that  I  undertake  to  give  information  on 
this  subject,  having  had  but  meagre  experience  in  growing  carnations  in 
pots.  As  a  rule,  my -efforts  in  this  line  of  culture  have  met  with  but  moderate 
success,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  fact  that  I  have  been  more  interested  in  the 
growing  of  seedlings,  and  the  improvement  of  the  bench  culture  of  carna- 
tions, than  in  pot  culture.  I  can  do  no  better  than  to  supplement  my  limited 
knowledge  by  quotations  from  English  authors  who  have  fully  treated  the 
subject. 

In  the  treatise  upon  the  carnation,  published  in  1839  by  the  veteran, 
Thomas  Hogg,  of  Paddington  Green,  England,  the  pot  culture  of  carnations 
is  dealt  with  at  length.  Mr.  Hogg  gives  the  preparation  of  soil  much  im- 
portance, the  following  formula  being  supplied  for  preparing  a  compost 
heap  of  sufficient  size  to  furnish  soil  for  blooming  five  hundred  pots  of 
carnations : 

"One  load  of  fresh  yellow  loam;  half  a  load  of  common  black  earth,  or  garden 
mould;  two  loads  of  rotten  horse  dung;  four  large  barrows  of  coarse  sand  from  some 

191 


Carnations   for   Pot  Culture 

wash  or  pond  by  the  highroad  side,  or  dry  road  grit  in  lieu  thereof,  laid  up  to  dry  and 
run  through  a  sieve. 

"For  an  abridged  quantity  take :  Five  barrows  of  loam  or  maiden  earth ;  eight  to 
nine  barrows  of  horse  dung  from  frames  (i.  e.,  well  rotted)  ;  one  barrow  of  coarse  sand, 
or  more,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  loam,  stiff  soils  requiring  more  sand.  Mix 
thoroughly  and  throw  together  on  a  heap,  or  ridge,  and  turn  two  or  three  times  during 
the  winter,  especially  in  frosty  weather,  that  the  ingredients  may  be  well  and  evenly 
incorporated. 

"On  a  dry  day,  towards  the  end  of  November,  take  a  barrowful  of  fresh  lime,  which, 
as  soon  as  slacked,  strew  over  the  heap  while  hot,  meanwhile  turning  the  heap ;  this 
accelerates  the  rotting  of  the  fibrous  materials,  lightens  the  soil  and  destroys  grubs, 
worms  and  slugs." 

I  would  further  recommend  that  this  soil  be  sterilized  about  a  month 
previous  to  using.  Sterilization  further  accelerates  the  rotting  of  fibrous  ma- 
terials, tends  to  increase  the  available  content  of  plant  food,  and  also 
destroys  weed  seeds,  spores  of  fungi  and  all  insect  pests,  or  their  eggs.  Hogg 
further  says : 

"If  any  objection  be  stated  that  the  quantity  of  dung  is  too  great  in  proportion  to 
that  of  loam,  1  answer  that  such  an  objection  might  be  well  founded  if  the  compost 
were  to  be  used  immediately  on  its  being  mixed  together;  but  as  it  has  to  lie  six 
months  before  it  is  used,  I  am  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  the  quantity  is  not  more 
than  is  necessary,  in  order  to  insure  a  luxuriant  growth  and  a  generous  bloom. 

"The  thoroughbred  florist,  who  derives  pleasure  from  the  pursuit,  and  who  has 
always  the  flower-fever  strong  upon  him ;  who  has  rivals  to  contend  with ;  who  is 
incited  by  the  love  of  fame,  and  the  hope  of  winning  the  first  splendid  prize  at  some 
exhibition ;  who  will  walk  fifty  miles  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  some  new,  celebrated  flower, 
and  who,  if  it  meets  his  fancy,  will  sooner  pawn  the  coat  from  off  his  back  than  not 
to  obtain  it ;  who  will  leave  his  warm  and  comfortable  bed  at  midnight  to  rise  and 
destroy  the  cursed  earwigs  that  shall  dare  to  attack  his  favorite  blossom;  will  begrudge 
no  labor,  and  neglect  no  pains,  to  perform  this  part  well,  on  which  he  knows  his  chance 
of  success  principally  depends.  With  the  latter,  especially  if  he  be  young  in  the  fancy, 
my  only  fear  is,  lest  he  overdo  the  part.  To  such  a  one,  if  you  give  a  receipt  for 
any  particular  composition,  and  recommend  one  peck  of  soot,  most  probably  he  will  put 
two;  if  two  pounds  of  salt,  he  will  put  four;  if  three  pails  of  blood,  he  will  put  six;  if 
four  barrows  of  sugar-baker's  scum,  he  will  put  eight ;  and  so  on. 

"Removing  the  plants  into  large  pots  to  bloom. 

"In  our  variable  climate,  the  first  week  in  April  is  the  safest  and  best  time  to  per- 
form this ;  the  pots  generally  made  use  of  for  this  purpose  are  those  of  twelve  or  sixteen 
to  a  cast. 

"A  twelve-size  pot  will  contain  three  or  four  plants,  according  to  their  habit  of 
growth ;  a  sixteen,  two  or  three,  according  to  the  same  rule.  Be  careful  to  put  two  or 
three  large  bits  of  tile  at  the  bottom,  or  the  hollow  part  of  a  large  oyster-shell,  resting 
upon  a  tile,  to  preserve  drainage  for  the  water.  Stagnant  water,  whether  in  pots,  or 
in  the  open  fields,  is  alike  prejudicial  to  all  plants,  except  aquatics. 

"The  pots  to  be  filled  three  parts  full  with  compost,  in  its  rough,  or  coarse,  state 

192 


Carnations   for  Pot  Culture 

from  the  heap,  using  fine,  or  sifted,  mould  only  at  the  top,  around  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  which  must  not  be  planted  deeper  than  they  were  before. 

''The  mould  to  be  well  shaken  down,  to  prevent  its  settling  after.  The  coarse  parts, 
or  riddlings  that  would  not  pass  through  the  sieve,  may  also  be  put  at  the  bottom,  fill- 
ing each  pot  about  three  inches  deep  with  them. 

"At  this  season  of  the  year,  when  they  want  water,  let  it  be  given  in  the  morning, 
rather  than  in  the  evening,  till  about  the  middle  of  May,  on  account  of  the  frosts  which 
will  often  recur  at  that  time. 

"When  the  plants  begin  to  spindle,  or  shoot  up  for  bloom,  they  require  to  be  sup- 
ported by  sticks,  about  four  feet  in  length ;  some  of  tall  growth,  as  Humphrey's  Clarence, 
Snook's  Defiance,  Fulbrook's  Grenadier,  Wood's  Ambassador,  etc.,  require  sticks  five 
feet  long." 

To  keep  down  aphis,  strew  pungent,  fine  tobacco  dust,  or  Scotch  snuff, 
over  the  plants  immediately  after  syringing.  A  weak  solution  of  tobacco 
extract,  or  tobacco  water,  may  be  sprayed  upon  the  foliage  with  an  atomizer, 
and  repeated  at  intervals  of  two  days  until  the  aphis  disappears  entirely. 

Top   Dressing 

Frequent  watering  of  the  plants  in  our  dry,  hot  seasons  exhausts  the 
compost,  and  tends  to  weaken  the  growth  of  the  plants.  This  may  be  reme- 
died by  top  dressing  the  pot  soil  in  the  early  part  of  June.  Well-rotted  horse, 
or  cow  dung,  passed  through  a  sieve,  may  be  used,  covering  the  soil  surface 
to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch.  A  few  handfuls  of  pulverized  sheep  manure, 
and  a  dash  of  Scotch  soot,  may  be  added,  with  good  results. 

Top  dressings  of  hot  manures,  such  as  night  soil,  sugar-baker's  scum, 
nitrate  of  soda,  dried  blood,  should  be  avoided.  Weak  solutions  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  as  well  as  the  chemical  fertilizers  mentioned  in  Chapter  V.,  may  be 
used,  but  must  be  afforded  conservatively,  and  with  judgment. 

It  should  never  be  lost  sight  of,  that  "an  immoderate  use  of  strong 
manures  to  most  plants  is  like  the  immoderate  use  of  hot  spirituous  liquors 
to  the  human  frame;  they  force  and  excite  for  a  time,  only  to  weaken  and 
destroy." 

In  my  opinion,  manures  and  fertilizers  should  be  used  as  foods  and, 
except  in  rare  instances,  not  as  stimulants.  Plants  that  must  complete  their 
growth  the  year  round,  in  pots,  are  generally  much  benefited  by  surface 
dressings  of  the  soil  at  reasonable  periods.  The  beneficial  effects  of  such 
dressings  may  be  made  apparent  by  experimenting  with  one  or  two  pots, 
and  comparing  them  with  others  untreated.  The  improved  health  and  vigor 
of  the  plants  will  be  evidenced  by  improved  color  of  foliage  and  strength  of 
growth.  The  blossoms  will  be  larger,  the  substance  of  the  petals  firmer, 
the  stems  longer  and  stronger,  and  the  blooms  of  much  better  color.  If, 


Carnations   for  Pot  Culture 

however,  such  fertilization  is  over  done,  a  soft,  sappy  growth,  with  washy 
colored  blooms,  will  be  the  result.    A  late  English  essayist  says : 

"A  proper  compost  should  be  composed  of  good  yellow  loam,  plenty  of  well-rotted 
manure,  a  little  peat,  and  some  coarse  sand.  In  potting  plants,  the  roots  should  have 
plenty  of  room.  The  period  of  growth  and  blooming  while  in  the  pots  is  very  long,  and 
to  allow  the  roots  to  become  potbound  at  any  time  is  bad  practice.  In  favorable  sea- 
sons, it  is  best  to  plant  in  the  open  ground  in  May,  and  lift  and  repot  in  early  Septem- 
ber. The  leading  shoots  should  be  stopped  twice  while  the  plants  are  in  the  open 
ground.  After  potting,  the  plants  should  stand  in  a  shaded  situation  for  a  week  or 
ten  days,  or  until  well  established." 

Air  must  be  freely  given  upon  all  favorable  opportunities,  maintaining 
a  winter  temperature  of  about  60  degrees,  with  some  10  degrees  less  at 
night. 

More  attention  will  be  necessary  in  watering  plants  grown  in  pots  than 
is  required  in  bench  culture.  The  carnation  needs  a  liberal  supply  of  mois- 
ture, and  plants  growing  in  pots  are  subject  to  loss  of  moisture  from  evapora- 
tion from  the  sides  of  the  pots,  as  well  as  surface  and  foliage  evaporation. 
The  soil  must  be  moist,  not  only  on  the  surface,  but  clean  through  to  the 
bottom  of  the  pot.  When  watering,  be  sure  that  a  good  soaking  is  given, 
thus  insuring  an  even  moisture  throughout  the  soil.  When  the  plants  are 
coming  into  flower,  a  weak  solution  of  manure  water,  made  from  fresh 
cow  dung,  to  which  may  be  added  a  little  Scotch,  or  soft  coal  soot,  may  be 
used  to  advantage. 

Green  fly  is  destroyed  by  fumigating  with  tobacco  smoke,  or  the  burn- 
ing of  tobacco  dust  or  snuff ;  or  by  dipping  the  plants  in  a  solution  made  by 
dissolving  four  ounces  of  Ivory  soap  to  a  gallon  of  water,  adding  a  half 
pint  of  tobacco  juice,  and  churning  with  a  syringe  until  thoroughly  mixed. 

Cuttings  for  pot  culture  should  be  taken  in  January  and  early  February. 
When  rooted,  pot  into  two-inch  pots,  and  place  in  a  temperature  of  60  de- 
grees. As  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  rooted,  place  the  pots  in  a  cooler  house, 
where  the  temperature  is  maintained  at  50  to  55  degrees  during  the  day,  and 
45  to  48  degrees  at  night.  This  cooler  treatment  will  produce  a  shorter, 
more  vigorous  growth. 

By  the  end  of  March  the  plants  will  need  shifting  into  two  and  one-half 
or  three-inch  pots,  at  which  time  a  little  pulverized  sheep  manure,  or  dry 
cow  manure  rubbed  through  a  sieve,  may  be  advantageously  added  to  the  soil. 
After  shifting,  the  plants  should  not  be  watered  for  a  few  days,  as  the  soil 
should  contain  enough  moisture  to  promote  root  action,  if  the  plants  are 
properly  shaded. 

Young  plants  do  best  when  kept  in  a  low  house,  close  to  the  glass,  and 

194 


Carnations   for   Pot  Culture 

given  an  abundance  of  air  night  and  day.  The  carnation  never  takes  kindly 
to  a  close  atmosphere.  This  matter  of  ventilation  and  watering  is  undoubt- 
edly the  keynote  to  success  in  flowering  carnations  in  pots. 

When  the  shoots  lengthen  to  five  or  six  inches,  they  should  be  stopped. 
There  are  no  set  rules  as  to  this  operation,  as  each  variety  must  be  observed 
and  treated  according  to  its  growth.  Some  may  require  pinching  twice  or 
thrice ;  others  only  once.  During  a  cold  season,  less  pinching  will  be  re- 
quired than  during  a  warm,  moist  period,  when  growth  is  more  rapid. 

By  the  end  of  June,  plants  will  be  ready  for  the  final  shift,  using  the  same 
compost,  to  which  add  coarse  ground  bone ;  also  a  sprinkling  of  soot  over 
the  drainage  crocks.  Six  to  eight-inch  pots  may  be  used,  three  or  four  plants 
being  put  into  the  larger  pots.  When  potted,  the  plants  should  be  staked, 
and  then  placed  in  frames,  on  beds  of  coal  ashes,  to  keep  worms  out  of  the 
pots.  By  the  middle  of  August,  the  pots  will  become  filled  with  roots,  and 
the  plants  may  be  occasionally  fed  with  manure  water,  or  mulched  with  a 
compost,  as  hereinbefore  stated.  Careful  attention  to  watering  is  required 
during  the  summer  months.  A  syringing  twice  each  day  during  bright 
weather  will  promote  a  fresh,  vigorous  growth,  and  help  to  keep  down  red 
spider  and  green  fly.  From  the  1st  to  the  I5th  of  October  should  see  the 
plants  in  winter  quarters,  which  should  be  a  clean,  bright,  airy  house,  with 
top  and  side  ventilation,  that  should  be  kept  on  at  all  favorable  times.  Car- 
nations should  never  be  kept  in  a  close  atmosphere.  They  need  a  constant 
circulation  of  air.  As  soon  as  housed,  fumigate  the  plants  with  tobacco 
smoke,  or  XL-All,  and  repeat  the  fumigation  every  week,  until  the  flower 
buds  show  color.  If  large  blooms  are  desired,  all  buds,  save  terminals,  should 
be  removed ;  but  a  better  plan  is  to  take  out  the  terminal  and  pinch  off  all 
but  the  strongest  three  buds  on  each  shoot.  By  this  treatment,  thirty  to 
fifty  blooms  may  be  grown  to  a  pot,  in  the  case  of  some  varieties.  A  tem- 
perature of  45  to  48  degrees  at  night,  and  55  to  60  degrees  during  the  day, 
will  maintain  the  plants  in  a  hardy,  growing  condition,  and  keep  them  longer 
in  flower  than  warmer  treatment. 

Painting  the  steam  pipes  twice  each  week  with  a  solution  of  Rose  Leaf 
Extract,  Nicotocide,  or  some  other  of  the  various  concentrated  tobacco  ex- 
tracts, will  prove  efficient  in  keeping  down  green  fly  and  also  largely  hold 
thrips  in  check.  Add  enough  water  to  the  extract  to  reduce  it  to  the  consis- 
tency of  thin  paint,  then  brush  all  the  pipes  with  the  solution.  The  more  pipe 
surface  that  is  covered  with  the  extract,  the  sooner  will  the  insects  be  de- 
stroved. 


195 


CHAPTER  XX 

Raising  Carnations  from  Seed — Cross-Breeding  and 

Fertilizing 

PERHAPS  the  most  interesting  part  of  carnation  growing,  especially 
to  the  flower  lover,  is  the  production  of  new  varieties  from  seed. 
This  is  accomplished  by  hybridization  and  cross-fertilization.     When 
the  grower  desires  to  produce  a  new  variety,  plants  are  selected  which  seem  to 
combine  the  greatest  number  of  characteristics  to  be  perpetuated  or  increased. 


E.     Flower  ready  for  pollinating  A.     Petals  closing  after  fertilization 

D.    Flower  dissected,  showing  pistil         B.     Ovary  beginning  to  swell 

C.    Seed  ripening 

If  a  large  flower,  of  a  beautiful  pink  color,  upon  a  free  habit  is  sought,  plants 
whose  combined  characteristics  will  equal  or  approximate  those  wanted  are 

196 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

chosen.  For  instance,  if  there  are  two  varieties,  one  of  which  possesses  the 
ideal  habit  and  a  flower  of  the  ideal  size,  form  and  shape,  but  lacking  in 
color,  and  the  other  variety,  while  deficient  in  some  of  the  above  character- 
istics possesses  the  desired  color,  the  flower  of  the  variety  having  the  wished- 
for  habit,  form  and  size  will  be  fertilized  with  pollen  from  the  variety  pos- 
sessing the  color  wanted.  The  result  may  be  that  a  variety  will  be  produced 
which  not  only  combines  the  habit,  size,  form  and  freedom  of  bloom  sought, 
but  the  ideal  color  as  well,  and  in  many  instances  improvements  in  all  those 
points. 

The  operator's  tools  are  few,  indeed.  A  pair  of  tweezers,  a  pocket  micro- 
scope, a  few  tight-stoppered  glass  phials  in  which  to  preserve  pollen,  and  a 
delicate  camel's  hair  brush  comprise  the  list,  and  frequently  the  latter  is  dis- 
pensed with,  the  tweezers  alone  being  relied  upon  to  transfer  the  pollen 
to  the  pistils. 

The  operation  of  pollinating  the  flower  is  very  simple.  It  consists  of 
applying  the  pollen,  when  it  is  in  the  right  condition,  to  the  stigma  of  the 
flower  desired  to  be  pollinated,  at  the  proper  time.  The  only  way  to  learn 
at  which  time  this  should  be  done  is  by  practical  experiment.  The  pollen 
is  produced  upon  the  anthers.  As  these  anthers  burst,  the  pollen  is  released 
in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder,  and  when  in  this  condition  it  should  be  applied. 
While  the  pollen  will  stand  for  a  considerable  time  and  retain  its  vitality,  the 
best  results  are  obtained  if  it  is  used  as  soon  after  ripening  as  possible. 
Tiny,  hair-like  growths  standing  along  the  entire  length  of  the  upper  surface 
of  the  stigma  will  be  noted.  When  these  hair-like  growths  are  well  de- 
veloped, and  especially  when  they  assume  a  transparent  appearance  and 
seem  to  be  covered  with  tiny  dew  drops,  the  stigma  is  ready  for  pollination. 
The  operation  should  be  done  just  as  soon  as  the  stigma  is  in  condition; 
otherwise  some  foreign  pollen  may  alight  thereon  and  the  flower  be  pollinated 
before  the  pollen  desired  to  be  applied  has  had  time  to  act. 

Fertilization  takes  place  with  the  germination  of  the  pollen,  which  sends 
very  minute  root-like  growths  down  and  makes  connection  with  the  ovules. 
As  soon  as  these  growths  reach  the  ovules  they  commence  to  swell,  the 
petals  of  the  flower  wither,  and  the  bloom  closes  up,  or  "goes  to  sleep,"  as 
the  florist  expresses  it,  and  fertilization  is  complete.  In  the  illustration  on 
page  196,  A  shows  the  flower  closing  up  immediately  after  fertilization;  B 
the  seed  pod  swelling  after  fertilization,  and  C  the  ripened  pod.  It  takes 
from  six  to  eight,  and  sometimes  ten  weeks  after  the  flower  is  fertilized  be- 
fore the  seeds  are  ripened.  This  ripened  condition  will  be  indicated  by  the 

197 


The  Hybridizing  Tools  are  Simple  Indeed 
"A  pair  of  tweezers,   a  magnifying  glass,  and  a  delicate  cameT s  hair  brush' 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

pods  shriveling  up  and  turning  brown  on  top.  The  seed  pods  must  be 
watched  and  not  allowed  to  stand  too  long  before  they  are  gathered,  as  some- 
times the  pods  burst  open,  scattering  the  seed,  and  it  is  lost;  but  it  should 
be  gathered  as  soon  as  thoroughly  ripe. 

The  stem  should  be  broken  off  about  four  inches  in  length,  and  the 
pod  and  stem  placed  together  in  an  envelope  and  put  in  a  dry  place,  to 
remain  until  thoroughly  cured,  after  which  the  pods  should  be  broken  open 
and  the  seed  cleaned  and  placed  in  small  envelopes,  upon  which  the  name 
of  the  cross,  the  date  on  which  it  was  made,  and  the  time  the  seed  was 
gathered,  should  be  plainly  written. 

The  best  time  of  the  year  to  pollinate  carnations  is  either  in  the  months 
of  October  or  November,  or  in  January  or  February  and  early  March.  As 
a  rule,  I  have  secured  a  greater  number  of  good  varieties  from  flowers  that 
were  pollinated  in  October  or  November  than  from  those  which  were  pol- 
linated in  the  spring.  Possibly,  the  reason  is  that  in  the  fall  months  there  is 
less  pollen  floating  about  in  the  air,  and  the  hybridizing  is  not  interfered  with 
by  foreign  pollen  being  introduced  to  the  pistil.  If  the  blooms  were  pro- 
tected by  gauze  covers  both  before  and  after  pollination,  it  might  insure 
better  results  during  the  spring  months. 

\Ye  aim  to  sow  as  much  of  our  carnation  seed  as  is  ripened  by  the 
ist  of  February.  A  second  sowing  is  made  on  the  ist  of  March,  and  a 
third  sowing  about  the  ist  of  April.  Seeds  which  do  not  ripen  by  the  ist  of 
April  are  not  then  sown,  but  carried  over  and  sown  in  February  of  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

The  seeds  are  sown  in  shallow  flats,  not  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half 
to  two  inches  in  depth,  or  in  shallow  fern  pans.  These  flats,  or  pans,  have 
sufficient  drainage  so  that  the  soil  will  not  become  sour.  The  soil  should  be 
of  a  light,  friable  nature,  but  with  sufficient  body  to  hold  the  proper  degree  of 
moisture ;  it  should  be  thoroughly  sifted,  and  the  flats  filled  evenly  and 
firmed.  Shallow  drills,  one  and  a  half  inches  apart  and  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  deep,  are  made  by  pressing  a  slat  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide  into 
the  soil.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the  drills  at  a  distance  of  half  an  inch  apart 
and  covered  with  not  to  exceed  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  fine  soil.  The  surface 
of  the  soil  is  then  moistened  with  a  fine  spray,  and  the  flats  are  placed  in  a 
light  house,  where  the  temperature  is  about  56  to  60  degrees  at  night. 
The  soil  is  kept  moistened  by  spraying  with  a  fine  spray,  and  if  during 
the  intense  heat  of  bright  days  the  sun  dries  out  the  soil  too  fast,  shading 
with  thin  paper  should  be  afforded,  to  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  power  of  the 
sun  decreases. 

199 


Mrs.  Theodore  Roosevelt  Novelty 

Governor  Roosevelt  Mayor  Grant  Bud 

Types  of  Good  Calyces 

"In  selecting  a  flower  be  sure  of  a  firm,  large,  well-shaped  calvx" 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

In  a  week  or  ten  days  the  young  seedlings  will  commence  to  push  out  of 
the  soil,  at  which  time  great  care  must  be  exercised  that  they  be  neither 
allowed  to  wither  by  having  too  little  water,  nor  caused  to  damp  off  by 
being  watered  too  much. 

Xo  rule  for  watering  can  be  given,  but  the  proper  time  to  apply  it  and 
the  supply  to  be  afforded  must  be  noted  by  observation.  As  soon  as  the 
young  seedlings  have  made  three  or  four  leaves  they  are  pricked  off  into 
similar  flats  (which  are  filled  with  soil  of  the  same  character  as  before  men- 
tioned) in  rows  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  apart,  and  one  inch  apart  in  the 
row,  where  they  are  allowed  to  grow  until  about  two  inches  in  height,  when 
they  will  begin  to  crowd  and  must  be  removed  from  the  flats  and  potted 
up. 

One  and  three-quarters  to  two  inch  pots  should  be  used ;  and  the  same 
kind  of  soil  that  is  employed  in  potting  cuttings  is  suitable  for  seedlings. 
As  soon  as  these  seedlings  have  thoroughly  filled  the  pots  with  roots,  and  if 
the  conditions  are  not  such  that  they  can  be  planted  out  at  once,  they  should 
be  shifted  into  two  and  a  half  inch  pots. 

The  care  of  the  seedlings  from  the  time  they  are  shifted  is  similar 
to  that  given  any  young  carnation  plant.  Seedlings  from  early-sown  seed 
are  usually  planted  out  not  later  than  the  ist  to  the  loth  of  May,  but  those 
from  seed  sown  the  ist  of  April  will  not  be  ready  to  plant  out  much  before  the 
ist  of  June. 

A  good  method  is  to  plant  the  seedlings  in  the  field  in  the  same  manner 
as  is  done  with  carnation  plants  grown  from  cuttings.  The  care  is  similar 
during  the  summer  months,  excepting  stopping  or  cutting  back.  In  the 
case  of  seedlings,  the  first,  or  central  shoot  (which  might  be  called  the 
crown  shoot),  is  cut  back,  and  the  laterals  allowed  to  grow  and  flower;  while 
with  plants  for  winter  blooming,  all  shoots  are  cut  back  during  the  growing 
season.  . 

About  the  ist  of  August  the  first  blooms  will  commence  to  open,  and 
then  begins  the  task  of  selecting  such  plants  as  the  grower  deems  worthy 
of  cultivating  under  glass  for  what  is  known  as  the  first  year's  trial.  The 
selection  of  such  plants  is  purely  a  matter  of  judgment  on  the  part  of  the 
grower,  who  will  naturally  choose  those  varieties  in  which  he  sees  the  most 
promise. 

As  soon  as  a  plant  has  been  determined  upon  for  trial,  it  should  be 
marked  with  a  label,  upon  which  the  cross  number  (which  will  identify  it 
with  the  record  kept  of  the  cross)  should  be  placed.  Plants  selected  for 
trial  should  be  lifted  and  planted  inside,  the  same  as  plants  grown  from 

201 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

cuttings,  with  the  exception  that  seedling  plants,  being  considerably  more 
vigorous,  should  be  given  more  room  on  the  bench.     Rows  twelve  inches 


"If you  fail  to  select  good,  firm  calyces  a  burster  may  be  your  reward" 

apart,  and  plants  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row,  will  afford  none 
too  much  growing  space. 


202 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 


A  Vase  of  Selected  Seedling's 
"The  parents  should  always  have  strong  stems  and  large,  well-formed  flowers" 

Seedling  plants  are  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  those  for  ordinary 
winter  flowering,  and  allowed  to  bloom  throughout  the  winter,  frequent  notes 
being  made  as  to  their  condition  at  various  periods.  But  a  small  portion  of 


203 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

• 

those  taken  in  will  be  thought  worthy  of  a  second  year's  trial,  and  such  as 
are  selected  should  be  immediately  marked  with  a  label  to  denote  the 
selection.  This  label  should  always  remain  with  the  plant,  as  it  identifies  the 
pedigree,  or  life  history,  as  it  were,  of  the  seedling. 

In  selecting  a  seedling  for  the  second  year's  trial,  be  sure  of  a  firm,  large, 
well-formed  calyx,  for  if  you  fail  to  select  good  firm  calyces  a  crop  of 
"bursters"  may  be  your  reward. 

The  seed  parent  should  always  have  good  strong  stems  and  large,  well- 
formed  flowers,  as  the  axiom  that  "like  will  produce  like"  will  be  found 
to  hold,  to  some  extent,  in  the  reproduction  of  carnation  plants  from  seed. 

Close  attention  should  also  be  paid  to  the  habit  of  the  seed  plant 
selected.  Such  plants  should  possess  strong,  vigorous  constitutions  and  a 
tendency  toward  rapid,  free  growth  and  early  and  continuous  flowering.  By 
a  course  of  careful  selection,  extending  over  a  period  of  years,  the  grower 
will  produce  a  strain  of  plants  peculiarly  his  own,  from  which  by  careful 
breeding  he  will  be  able  to  obtain  many  sorts  of  great  merit.  He  will  cer- 
tainly secure  far  better  results  than  if  his  work  has  been  done  in  a  careless, 
unsystematic  manner  and  without  regard  to  the  pedigree  or  physical  charac- 
teristics .of  his  seed  plants. 

The  size  and  form  and  stem  of  the  flower,  as  well  as  the  habit,  having 
been  approved,  the  next  point  to  be  considered  is  color,  and  in  this,  careful 
work  in  the  selection  of  pure,  clear  tints  will  bear  fruit  fully  as  richly  as 
the  selection  with  respect  to  other  characteristics. 

Some  royal  beauties  will  fall  to  the  lot  of  every  careful  breeder  who 
does  his  work  faithfully  and  well.  The  varieties  Governor  Roosevelt,  Mrs. 
Thomas  W.  Lawson,  Adonis,  Mrs.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Prosperity,  and 
Enchantress  are  likely  examples  of  the  result  of  careful  work  faithfully  per- 
formed. However,  Dame  Carnation  produces  some  strange  freaks,  and  now 
and  then  the  grower  will  discover  such  absurdities  as  the  anemone-flowered 
carnation,  the  Jumbo,  and  the  two-storied  flower.  These,  while  decidedly 
interesting,  can  seldom  be  perpetuated  and  are,  as  a  rule,  of  no  value,  save 
as  curiosities. 

In  selecting  the  colors,  the  tints  should  be  pure  and  clear,  and  the  tones 
pleasing  to  the  eye.  A  mixture  of  purple  and  pink  tones  should  be  avoided, 
choosing  for  the  pink  section  those  tones  that  are  clear  and  inclined  toward 
the  salmon,  or  flesh  pink,  rather  than  toward  the  magenta. 

Among  the  bizarres,  strange  and  beautiful  combinations  of  delicate 
coloring  will  be  found,  and  these  colorings  are  not  always  disposed  in  regular 

204 


Governor  Roosevelt 
Mrs.  Theodore  Roosevelt 


Adonis 
Mrs.  T.  W.  Lawson 


Some  royal  beauties  will  fall  to  the  lot  of  every  careful  Hybridizer 
who  does  his  work  faithfully  and  we//" 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

stripes  or  edgings.  Sometimes  they  are  laid  on  in  dashes,  flecks  and  bars, 
as  if  the  Goddess  of  Flowers  now  and  then  wielded  her  brush  carelessly. 

The  fancy  variegated  section  will  afford  much  interest  and  pleasure. 
Selections  from  this  section  should  be  pure  in  color  tint,  and  the  markings 
should  be  distinct  and  agreeable  in  tone. 

The  ideal  white  carnation  is  like  the  Will-o'-the-wisp,  always  before  you, 
yet  not  quite  in  hand.  In  this  section,  the  field  is  still  open.  It  may  be  said 
to  be  almost  unoccupied,  and  so  long  as  carnations  are  grown  we  may  expect 
a  continued  search  for  the  ideal  white.  Several  times  has  the  ideal  been 
announced,  exhibited,  and  received  the  prizes  and  awards  of  the  National 
Society,  but  when  put  to  the  test,  a  year  or  two  after  introduction  it  has  failed 
to  satisfy  the  requirements. 

Of  all  the  colors  yet  obtained,  yellow  seems  the  most  difficult  to  pro- 
duce. It  generally  comes  with  various  types  of  variegation,  which  should 
be  disposed  in  clear,  distinct  markings.  The  call  for  yellow  carnations 
is  not  over  large ;  nevertheless,  a  good  yellow  is  always  in  demand  in  limited 
quantities. 

On  the  ist  of  February  most  of  the  worthy  plants  will  have  bloomed, 
and  the  selection  for  the  second  year's  trial  have  been  made.  None  but 
strong  cuttings  should  be  taken  from  such,  and  only  a  moderate  number 
propagated  the  first  year.  Many  seedling  raisers  make  the  mistake  of 
growing  as  many  cuttings  as  possible  from  the  seedling  plant,  and  the  dis- 
position of  many  varieties  to  become  weak  during  the  earlier  years  of  prop- 
agation, may  possibly  be  traced  to  the  over-propagation  of  the  seedling 
plant.  Many  times  a  seedling  plant  which  shows  an  exceptionally  strong, 
vigorous  constitution,  and,  in  fact,  seems  to  be  extra  promising,  turns  out 
to  be  of  little  value  on  the  second  year's,  and  probably  on  the  third  year's 
trial.  In  fact,  for  the  first  three  or  four  years  but  little  is  positively  known 
of  the  variety  under  test.  Frequently  a  variety  which  shows  great  promise 
during  the  first  and  second  years'  trials  utterly  fails  the  third  year. 

Four  to  six  years  after  introduction  seem  to  constitute  the  profitable 
commercial  life  of  a  carnation,  although  such  may  frequently  be  prolonged ; 
and  many  varieties  have  been  grown  commercially  with  great  success  for 
ten  to  twelve  or  more  years  by  growers  who  realize  thoroughly  the  im- 
portance of  general  good  care,  good  culture,  and  a  selection  of  propagating 
wood  from  plants  in  the  best  of  health  and  condition.  Too  much  import- 
ance cannot  be  placed  upon  proper  cultural  methods  and  judicious  selection 
of  propagating  wood.  Nevertheless  it  will  always  be  a  fact,  that  so  long 
as  raisers  of  seedlings  continue  to  produce  new  varieties,  it  will  be  necessary 

206 


Anemone-flowered  Carnation 
The  two-storied  Carnation  Malmaison  Carnation  Jumbo 

" 'Dame  Carnation  produces  some  strange  freaks'1 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

to  replenish  carnation  stocks  with  new  kinds  grown  from  seed,  in  order 
to  keep  pace  with  the  requirements  of  the  market. 

There  exist  two  leading  elements  that  bid  fair  to  encourage  florists  to 
continue  their  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the  carnation  for  man}'  years 
to  come.  Lovers  as  well  as  users  of  flowers  are  constantly  seeking  that  which 
is  novel  and  rare.  The  progressive  florist  is  ever  on  the  alert  to  gratify  such 
desires  on  the  part  of  the  flower-loving  public ;  consequently,  the  call  for 


Bizarre  Seedling 

Snow-white  ground  with  crimson  scarlet  shadings.     The  colors  are  not  always 
disposed  in  regular  stripes  or  edgings 

new  and  improved  carnations  will  be,  to  some  extent,  perpetuated  by  these 
conditions,  and  it  may  be  well  said  that  no  florist  who  hopes  to  keep  abreast 
of  the  times  can  afford  to  ignore  this  improvement  in  the  carnation,  and 
must  of  necessity  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  newer  varieties  as  they  are 
introduced  and  maintain  his  stock  fully  up  to  date  by  the  purchase  of  those 

208 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

better  sorts  which  bid  fair  to  succeed  with  the  conditions  under  which  he 
grows  carnations. 

Again,  say  what  we  may,  it  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  the  average 
variety  of  carnation  remains  in  profitable  cultivation  but  a  few  years  and  must 
be  constantly  replaced  by  the  newer  and  improved  and  more  vigorous 
varieties  grown  from  seed.  In  other  words,  carnations  are  continually  run- 
ning out;  therefore,  the  market  for  new  and  improved  sorts  would  seem  to 


Bizarre  Seedling 

Snow-white  ground  overlaid  with  splashes  of  cream  pink  and  crimson.    Among  the 
Bizarres  strange  and  beautiful  combinations  of  delicate  coloring  will  be  found 

be  a  permanent  one,  and  these  elements  will  tend  to  keep  open  a  broad  field 
to  the  grower,  who  may  rest  assured  that  if  he  produces  a  really  improved 
carnation  he  will  find  a  profitable  sale  for  his  production. 

Buyers  of  carnations  will  usually  seek  the  best,  and  the  various  raisers  of 
new  kinds,  who  are  devoting  their  time  and  attention  to  the  advancement 


H 


2O9 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

of  the  cai  nation,  are  certain  to  produce  more  or  less  improvements  upon 
existing  varieties,  and  the  forehanded  grower  will  need  to  purchase  annually, 
and  test  such  varieties,  in  order  to  determine  whether  he  can  successfully 
supply  them  at  a  profit. 

The  mere  raising  and  selling  a  double  seedling  carnation,  even  though 
netting  some  profit  to  its  grower,  cannot  be  considered  as  successful  im- 
provement of  the  carnation.  An  accidental  variety  of  merit  may  now  and 
then  come  to  the  grower  who  miscellaneously  mixes  the  pollen  from  differ- 
ent flowers,  and  plants  the  seed  resulting  therefrom ;  but  the  continued  pro- 
duction of  the  best  of  the  improved  varieties  will  scarcely  follow  such  work. 

If  the  reader  expects  that  hard  and  fast  rules  for  producing  an  army  of 
new  seedlings,  to  perplex  the  whilom  seeker  of  that  which  is  best  and  most 
profitable  to  grow,  will  be  herein  laid  down,  he  is  laboring  under  a  mistaken 
idea. 

The  ground  over  which  a  hybridizer  is  working  becomes  peculiarly  his 
own  territory,  practically  an  unknown  region  which  he  alone  is  exploring, 
and  he  must  not  only  get  his  knowledge  as  he  works  over  his  field,  but  he 
must  also  have  the  ability  to  take  advantage  of  and  use  what  knowledge  it 
may  be  his  fortune  to  garner ;  consequently,  he  cannot  make  rules  even  for 
his  own  guidance,  much  less  for  the  guidance  of  others  laboring  in  different, 
though  analogous  fields. 

In  the  selection  of  parents,  choose  the  best  you  have  at  hand.  You  will 
not  find  all  the  desired  attributes  in  any  one  plant,  or  in  any  six  plants, 
possibly  not  in  any  hundred  plants;  and  after  producing  several  thousand 
seedling  plants,  and  finally  reducing  them  by  the  process  of  selection  to  a 
half-dozen  considered  worthy  of  a  third  year's  trial,  the  hybridizer  will 
wonder  at  and  be  discouraged  by  the  amount  of  dross  he  has  to  handle  in 
order  to  get  a  little  gold. 

In  the  selection  of  seedlings,  color  stands  pre-eminently  above  all  other 
considerations.  Size,  form,  fragrance,  substance,  strength  of  stem,  stand 
on  a  fairly  even  basis  of  value.  When  these  have  been  secured,  get  as  much 
continuity  of  bloom  as  is  possible,  and  maintain  your  cardinal  features.  Do 
not  overlook  fragrance.  Its  place  is  so  close  to  color  and  size,  that  it  was 
the  cardinal  virtue  that  won  the  Divine  Flower  into  favor  long  before  it  had 
much  of  either  color  or  size  to  boast  of. 

Having  suited  your  own  taste  in  selecting  your  seedling,  you  must  in- 
vestigate its  selling  qualities.  Florists  should  appreciate  that  the  discrim- 
inating buyer  usually  decides  what  he  or  she  wishes  to  purchase.  The 
retail  florist,  being  in  close  touch  with  the  consuming  purchaser,  quickly  dis- 


210 


Viola  Allen 
Judge  Hinsdale 


Mrs.  George  M.  Bradt 
Fancy  Seedling 


"  The  fancy  variegated  section  will  afford   the  Hybridizer  much  01 
interest  and  pleasure" 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

cerns  what  is  most  pleasing  to  the  greatest  number.  Therefore,  it  follows 
that  the  producer  of  new  carnations  should  keep  in  touch  with  the  retailer, 
and  should  avail  himself  of  the  latter's  knowledge  whenever  possible. 

Choose  pure  tones  of  color,  those  possessing  the  greatest  elements  of 
fixedness.  Avoid  dull,  fading,  or  washy  colors,  and  above  all,  those  peculiar 
combinations  of  discordant  tints  that  shock  the  optic  nerve. 

Every  flower  coming  with  long  stiff  stems,  large  and  double,  of  good 
form  and  calyx,  and  the  plant  a  free  bloomer,  will  not  prove  commercially 
valuable;  but  a  combination  of  size,  pure  tone  of  color,  good  stem,  form, 
fragrance  and  calyx,  with  freedom  of  bloom,  and  above  all  not  forgetting 
selling  qualities,  is  what  constitutes  a  first-class  commercial  carnation,  and 
the  grower  who  produces  such  a  one  deserves  the  plaudits  of  his  fellow 
growers. 

Introducing   New  Varieties   Into  Commerce 

Having  determined  the  candidate  for  introduction,  the  method  of  bring- 
ing it  before  the  trade  will  next  interest  the  originator.  There  are  two 
methods  now  in  use,  differing  to  such  an  extent  as  to  deserve  separate 
descriptions.  The  first  and  possibly  that  most  frequently  employed  is  what 
we  may  term  the  "boom  method,"  which  in  order  to  be  successfully  carried 
out  needs  the  co-operation  of  several  different  elements,  and  the  accumulation 
of  a  large  number  of  stock  plants. 

Briefly  stated,  the  "boom  method"  consists  of  praising  and  pushing  the 
merits  of  the  candidate  for  introduction  in  all  possible  ways,  and  advertising 
all  its  virtues,  real  and  imaginary,  constantly  through  all  available  media. 
Certificates  of  merit,  special  cups  and  prizes  offered  to  be  won  by  the  candi- 
date, as  well  as  frequent  exhibitions  at  flower  shows,  supplemented  by  well- 
written  press  notices,  form  the  usual  plan,  and  when  cleverly  carried  out, 
result  in  large  sales  and  considerable  profit  to  the  introducer  during  the  year 
of  introduction. 

The  second  and  perhaps  the  most  desirable  method  might  be  termed  the 
"business  method,"  which,  while  not  productive  of  such  large  sales  the  first 
year,  eventually  accomplishes  more  for  the  general  benefit  of  the  frater- 
nity than  the  method  just  previously  described,  and  may  be  safely  adopted  with 
a  stock  of  1,500  to  2,000  plants  to  propagate  from.  The  varieties  selected 
for  introduction  may  be  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  trade  by  placing  the 
flowers  in  the  hands  of  leading  retailers,  as  well  as  by  judicious  advertising, 
and  staging  blooms  at  the  annual  exhibitions. 

The  descriptions  given  should  be  correct.    Avoid  producing  impressions, 


212 


Shasta 
White  Seedling 


Alba 
Lizzie  McGowan 


The  ideal  white  Carnation  is  like  the  Will-o'the-wisp — always   beiore  you 
yet  not  quite  in  hand" 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

• 

or  arousing  expectations,  that  cannot  be  fulfilled.  Be  satisfied  with  selling 
a  fair  number  at  a  good  price  the  first  season,  and  endeavor  to  be  in  a  position 
to  satisfy  the  second  season's  demand,  which  will  be  large,  if  your  selections 
possess  merit. 

Propagate  your  stock  carefully,  selecting  your  propagating  wood  with 
judgment,  keeping  your  stock  in  good  health,  and  send  out  the  young  plants 
in  a  condition  that  will  insure  good  growth  and  a  successful  crop  of  flowers 
in  the  hands  of  the  average  florist. 

I  do  not  mean  to  convey  the  impression  that  the  introducer  is  limited 
to  the  two  methods  described.  Each  introducer  may  adopt  any  honorable, 
legitimate  means  whereby  he  can  bring  his  production  to  popular  notice  and 
secure  a  profitable  sale  thereof. 

If  the  carnation  specialist  can  get  under  the  wing  of  a  Copper  King  and 
deftly  twist  a  3O,ooo-dollar  nugget  from  the  plethoric  purse  of  the  monarch 
of  metals,  he  may  well  congratulate  himself,  and  no  doubt  many  of  the 
fraternity  will  also  congratulate  him.  But  it  may  be  well  to  remember  that 
there  are  as  yet  few  Lawsons,  even  fewer  Fishers,  perhaps ;  while  the  com- 
bination of  Lawson,  Fisher  and  Galvin  is  the  rarest  of  all. 

It  may,  however,  be  well  to  comprehend  that  a  reputation  for  reliable 
and  honorable  dealing  may  be  established  by  the  introducer  of  new  plants 
equally  with  any  other  business  man,  and  such  a  reputation  will  become  a 
source  of  much  profit  to  its  possessor  and  a  surer  aid  in  marketing  his  pro- 
ductions, than  could  all  the  prizes  and  certificates  he  might  be  able  to  win. 
It  therefore  behooves  the  intending  introducer  of  new  carnations,  not  only 
to  be  cautious  and  circumspect  in  the  selection  and  judging  of  his  own  seed- 
lings, but  to  guard  his  statements  well,  and  to  let  no  shadow  of  misrepresenta- 
tion linger  about  the  descriptions  with  which  he  brings  his  favorite  to  his 
patrons'  notice. 

Remember  that  ten  satisfied  customers  are  far  more  valuable  than  a 
thousand  dissatisfied  ones;  and  the  way  to  create  satisfied  customers,  is  to 
introduce  only  varieties  which  your  experience  teaches  you  will  have  a 
profitable  chance  of  succeeding ;  and  to  deliver  the  stock  in  such  a  condition 
that  the  purchaser  will  not  be  handicapped  in  his  efforts  to  test  successfully 
your  introductions. 


214 


Golden  Beauty 
Fancy  Yellow  Seedling 


Novelty 
Golden  Eagle 


"Of  all  the  colors  obtained,  yellow  seems  the  most  difficult  to  produce" 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 
The  Growing  of  New  Varieties 

BY   FRED   DORNER. 

As  the  growing  of  new  varieties  has  been  a  great  factor  in  the  evolution 
of  the  carnation  during  the  last  decade,  a  few  remarks  as  to  how  this  branch 
is  conducted  at  our  place,  at  Lafayette,  Ind.,  may  be  of  interest. 

My  first  seedlings  were  grown  in  1889.  The  varieties  which  were  then 
at  my  command,  to  obtain  seed  from,  and  which  are  mainly  the  ancestors  of 
all  I  have  grown  since,  were :  President  De  Graw,  Edwardsii,  Heintz's  White, 
and  Silver  Spray,  white;  Grace  Wilder,  and  Mrs.  Cleveland,  light  pink;  La 
Purite  and  Tidal  Wave,  dark  pink;  E.  G.  Hill  and  President  Garfield, 
scarlet;  Ferdinand  Mangold,  crimson;  Buttercup  and  Astoria,  yellow;  and 
Hinsdale  and  Sunrise,  variegated. 

Encouraged  by  my  first  effort,  which  proved  a  grand  success,  I  con- 
cluded to  make  carnation  culture  my  specialty,,  and  the  production  of  new 
varieties  the  head  of  it. 

The  seed  for  1890  was  grown  mainly  on  the  1889  seedlings,  and  in  the 
fall  of  1890,  a  bench,  4  feet  x  120  feet,  was  filled  with  plants  selected  out  of 
2,000  seedlings  from  the  field.  This  branch  of  the  business  has  since  steadily 
increased ;  and  in  the  fall  of  1902,  a  whole  house,  containing  2,200  plants,  was 
filled  with  those  selected  from  8,000  seedlings  that  had  bloomed  in  the 
field.  A  correct  record  of  all  crossings,  since  1890,  has  been  kept.  This  is 
found  to  be  a  great  help,  as  a  seed  parent  is  rarely  selected  without  con- 
sulting its  pedigree. 

Seed  is  grown  in  January  and  February.  The  parent  plants  are  mostly 
selected  from  the  one  and  two-year-old  seedlings.  At  this  time,  the  flowers 
can  be  selected  when  they  are  at  their  best,  and  we  find  it  the  most  suitable 
period  to  make  a  clean  crossing  without  the  interference  of  nature's  agents 
to  effect  fertilization.  By  April  the  seed  is  ripe,  and  is  sown  at  once ;  and 
by  the  latter  part  of  May  the  young  plants  can  be  transferred  to  the  field. 
Quite  a  number  of  plants  will  bloom  by  the  latter  part  of  July,  and  my  experi- 
ence tells  me  that  plants  which  have  not  flowered  by  the  I5th  of  October  are 
worthless,  as  they  are  invariably  shy  and  late  bloomers.  The  best  and  most 
profitable  varieties  we  have  sent  out  were  found  among  the  early  bloomers 
in  the  field. 

A  noticeable  feature,  in  my  experience,  is,  that  while  in  1890  fully  50 
per  cent,  of  the  flowers  came  single,  this  has  gradually  decreased  to  about  20 
per  cent,  in  1902. 

About  one-eighth  of  the  seedling  plants  housed  are  selected  and  num- 

216 


Raising  Carnations  from  Seed 

bered  for  a  second  year's  trial ;  and  of  this  number  about  one-fourth  are 
selected  for  trial  a  third  year.  However,  the  weeding-out  process  is  some- 
times much  faster.  Of  our  1899  seedlings,  only  one  variety  was  left  from 
the  second  year's  trial.  One  year  is  not  so  productive  of  results  as  another. 

The  growing  of  new  varieties,  in  the  natural  way  of  crossing  and  hybrid- 
izing, is  a  very  interesting  and  fascinating  work.  It  needs  the  aid  of  culture. 
Without  this  great  stimulating  help,  our  varieties  would  revert  gradually  to 
the  primitive  pink  of  a  thousand  years  ago  as  rapidly  as  they  have  advanced 
at  the  present  time. 

Selection  of  the  parent  flower  is  largely  based  on  calculation ;  but 
nature,  with  all  its  hereditary  power,  is  a  curb,  holding  fast  to  the  stages  of 
the  evolution  in  the  past,  and  thus  making  results  very  uncertain,  dis- 
appointing, and  almost  a  game  of  chance.  If  from  thousands  of  seedlings, 
after  three  years'  trial  and  weeding  out,  we  return  two  or  three  varieties 
better  than  existing  ones,  we  are  well  pleased  with  the  results. 


ULUiiiLUlllLUJU 


217 


CHAPTER  XXI 

Various   Classifications  of   the  Carnation— Traits   and 
Peculiarities— Sports  and  Variations— Seed  Sports 

THE  various  attempts  at  classifying  the  carnation  have  gradually  been 
abandoned,  until,  at  the  present  time,  there  seems  to  be  no  definite 
classification  scheme  in  vogue.  The  French  divide  the  carnation  into 
three  classes,  namely:  First,  Grenadines,  including  those  with  strong  per- 
fumes, single  or  double  flowers,  medium  in  size,  with  petals  deeply  fringed 
and  self-colored  blooms.  Second,  Flamands,  which  include  all  large- 
flowered  varieties,  the  blooms  being  round  and  double,  rising  in  the  center, 
and  forming  a  convex  surface,  with  smooth-edged  petals.  In  this  cl§ss  the 
colors  might  be  self,  or  striped  with  two  or  more  colors.  Third,  Fancies, 
comprised  of  those  with  colors  arranged  in  bands  on  light  grounds.  In  this 
class  the  petals  might  or  might  not  be  fringed. 

The  English  divide  the  carnation  into  four  classes,  namely:  First, 
Selfs,  those  possessing  but  one  color.  Second,  Flakes,  those  having  a  pure 
ground  of  white,  or  yellow,  ancl  flaked,  or  striped,  with  another  color  such 
as  crimson,  scarlet,  or  pink.  Third,  Bizarres,  those  having  the  pure  white, 
or  pure  yellow  ground,  marked  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Flakes,  but 
with  several  different  colors.  Fourth,  Picotees,  which  latter  class  has  been 
regarded  as  a  distinct  race,  the  flowers  having  a  pure  white,  or  yellow  ground, 
the  same  as  with  the  Flakes,  with  a  band  of  color  bordering  each  petal  at 
the  margin. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  I9th  century  much  attention  was  given  by 
English  gardeners  to  the  growing  of  large  carnation  flowers.  In  order  to 
produce  the  most  perfect  blooms,  the  English  growers  practiced  what  was 
called  the  art  of  "dressing,"  which  consisted  of  removing  the  superfluous 
petals  with  forceps,  and  arranging,  in  a  formal  manner,  such  petals  as 
appeared  out  of  place.  The  calyx  was  frequently  cut  partly  down  between 
the  teeth,  in  order  to  prevent  bursting,  and  to  provide  sufficient  room  for  the 
utmost  expansion  of  the  flower.  But  the  practice  of  the  art  of  dressing 
seems  to  have  wrought  the  downfall  of  the  English  carnation  about  the 
middle  of  the  iQth  century. 

218 


Various  Classifications  of  the  Carnation 

The  variety  commonly  grown  in  America,  known  as  the  perpetual 
flowering,  or  remontant,  monthly,  or  tree  carnation,  may  be  classed  as  a  dis- 
tinct race. 

As  yet,  there  has  been  no  organized  effort  to  divide  the  American  carna- 
tion into  distinct  classes;  but,  at  the  present  time,  it  might  be  possible  to 
revive  the  English  classification,  and  apply  it  to  our  American  race.  Thus, 
such  varieties  as  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  Enchantress,  President  Roose- 
velt, Mrs.  Roosevelt,  William  Scott,  Harry  Fenn,  and  others  would  be 
classed  as  Selfs.  Varieties  such  as  Viola  Allen,  Mrs.  George  M.  Bradt, 
Gaiety,  Marshall  Field,  Mrs.  M.  A.  Patten  and  Prosperity,  would  be  classed 
as  Flakes,  but  now  commonly  called  "variegated"  sorts  by  American  growers. 
Such  varieties  as  Eldorado,  Novelty,  and  others,  would  be  classed  as  Pico- 
tees.  At  the  present  time,  there  is  no  representative  of  the  Bizarre  type  in 
cultivation  here,  as  the  American  public,  as  well  as  the  American  grower, 
have  been  but  little  interested  in  the  combination  of  several  colors  in  one 
flower.  However,  examples  of  the  Bizarre  class  frequently  appear  in  the 
stocks  of  the  various  hybridizers,  and,  in  all  probability,  some  of  the  more 
striking  of  these  will,  sooner  or  later,  find  a  place  upon  the  market,  where 
they  will  undoubtedly  meet  with  favor  among  a  certain  class  of  people. 

Varieties 

In  breeding  carnations  the  writer  has  divided  his  stock  into  the  follow- 
ing classifications : 

1.  FANCIES:     These  embrace  varieties  with  white,  yellow,  or  other 
self-colored  grounds,  which  are  strikingly  and  peculiarly  marked. 

2.  THE  PURPLE  AND  BLUE  SECTION  :    This  covers  all  shades  of  purple, 
mauve,  and  such  as  might  be  liable  to  produce  a  blue-colored  carnation. 

3.  CRIMSON  OR  MAROON  :     Most  of  the  so-called  crimson  carnations 
are  really  deep  scarlet  grounds,  which  are  covered  with  a  veiling,  or  sheen, 
of  maroon. 

4.  SCARLET  SECTION  :    This  needs  no  description. 
The  Pinks  are  divided  into  two  sections : 

5.  LIGHT  PINKS:  Embracing  shades  of  the  flesh,  or    salmon,    com- 
monly known  as  the  Daybreak  type ;  and 

6.  DARK  PINKS:    Exemplified  by  William  Scott,  and  such  darker  vari- 
eties as  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  Mrs.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  and  so  forth. 

7.  WHITES  :  Which  need  no  description. 

8.  YELLOW  VARIEGATED  :    These  are  yellow  grounds  which  are  striped, 
spotted,  or  bordered,  with  various  colors,  such  as  scarlet,  pink,  etc. 

219 


The  Cottage  Gardens  Carnation  Range  in  a  Blizzard 

The  Carnation  grower's  life  is  not  an  easy  one.    In  winter  there  are   blizzards,  snow-drifts  and  ice, 
entailing  hard  labor  that  rends  his  muscles  and  taxes  his  patience 


Traits  and  Peculiarities 

9.  WHITE  VARIEGATED:    White  ground,  with  various  colored  mark- 
ings. 

10.  PINK  VARIEGATED:    This  is  a  section  which  is  the  result  of  seed 
sports  derived  from  crimson  crosses.     The  ground  color  of  the  flower  is 
usually  of  a  deep  Daybreak  shade  of  pink,  and  the  variegations  are  almost 
always  maroon,  or  crimson. 

11.  A  FANCY  SECTION,  which  might  be  called  Flake,  of  which  class 
Prosperity  is  a  good  example. 

There  has  been  no  particular  reason  for  this  classification,  except  to 
keep  similar  varieties  together  in  order  to  maintain  a  better  control  in  the 
scheme  of  breeding. 

Traits  and  Peculiarities 

Probably  no  commercial  florists'  flower  requires  more  strict  attention  to 
the  details  of  culture,  in  order  to  grow  it  to  the  best  advantage,  than  the 
carnation.  Undoubtedly,  the  florist  meets  with  greater  disappointments,  and 
his  success  in  cultivating  this  flower  is  probably  surrounded  with  more  un- 
certainties, than  is  connected  with  the  culture  of  almost  any  other  plant 
grown  for  cut  flower  purposes.  The  carnation  possesses  so  many  individual 
traits  and  peculiarities,  that  the  study  and  patience  of  the  grower  are  taxed 
to  the  utmost.  Then,  too,  the  constant  introduction  of  new  hybrids,  them- 
selves the  production  of  a  generation  of  hybrids,  seems  to  be  developing  an 
increasing  list  of  idiosyncrasies  which  tend  to  render  successful  culture 
perhaps  more  difficult  than  it  has  been  heretofore.  This  uncertainty  in  the 
carnation  character  is  so  well  known  to  hybridizers  who  have  worked  any 
length  of  time  in  the  production  of  new  seedlings,  that  they  insist  upon  test- 
ing their  new  productions  a  number  of  years  before  coming  to  any  definite 
conclusion  regarding  their  value.  A  seedling  will  frequently  give  the  great- 
est promise  for  one,  two,  or  even  three  years,  and  then,  even  as  late  as  the 
fourth  year,  will  indulge  in  such  pranks  as  refusing  to  bloom,  developing 
spot,  rust  or  some  other  disease  to  such  a  degree  as  to  practically  drive  the 
variety  out  of  cultivation;  or  it  will  develop  a  disposition  to  burst  its  calyx 
which  seems  impossible  to  overcome. 

Many  of  the  seedling  carnations  which  produce  enormous  flowers  dur- 
ing the  first  years  afterward  dwindle  rapidly,  until  the  blooms  become  of  less 
than  ordinary  size.  On  the  other  hand,  some  varieties,  that  at  first  do  not 
appear  to  possess  particular  merit,  gradually  increase  in  size  and  character,, 
and  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  years  are  developed  into  valuable  kinds. 
Of  varieties  with  this  characteristic,  the  well-known  Mrs.  G.  M.  Bradt  is  an- 

221 


Traits  and  Peculiarities 

example.  When  first  sent  out  the  success  in  the  culture  of  this  carnation 
was  little  more  than  nominal.  The  plants  of  it  yielded  but  comparatively  few 
flowers,  and  a  very  large  proportion  of  these  burst  the  calyx.  It  improved 
in  profusion  of  bloom,  size  of  flower,  and  strength  of  stem,  for  several  years 
after  its  introduction,  and,  for  a  period,  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  and 
popular  carnations  grown.  Another  example  of  this  type  of  improvement  is 
the  well-known  General  Maceo.  The  original  plant  apparently  possessed 
a  weak  constitution,  and  was  left  for  some  time  in  the  field,  as  it  was  not 
considered  to  have  sufficient  merit  to  warrant  a  trial.  It  was  at  the  last 
moment  dug  out  of  a  frozen  field,  because  of  the  depth  of  the  color  of  the 
flowers,  and  the  fact  that  they  lasted  an  unusual  length  of  time  after  open- 
ing fully.  The  plants  propagated  from  the  seed  parent  showed  a  sensible 
increase  in  strength  and  constitution,  and  further  improvement  followed  the 
subsequent  propagations.  The  variety  also  developed  great  freedom  of 
flowering,  and,  probably,  was  the  most  profuse  blooming  carnation  that  had 
been  introduced  to  American  culture  for  a  long  period  of  time. 

Some  varieties  are  also  particularly  affected  as  to  the  period  of  flower- 
ing by  the  time  at  which  the  cuttings  are  taken  for  propagation.  Thus,  late- 
blooming  kinds,  such  as  Prosperity,  Buttercup,  Mme!  Diaz  Albertini,  and 
others  of  that  type,  may  be  developed  into  early  bloomers  by  propagating 
very  early  in  the  season,  as  early  even  as  November  and  December,  and 
stopping  the  plants  but  once  or  twice  at  the  most.  Such  varieties  as  show  a 
habit  and  disposition  similar  to  those  of  Prosperity,  should  not  be  stopped 
after  the  month  of  July.  A  good  example  of  the  effect  of  early  and  late  prop- 
agation, connected  with  early  and  late  stopping,  was  given  by  a  house  of 
Prosperity  grown  this  year,  1903.  The  plants  that  were  propagated  in  Decem- 
ber, and  planted  out  from  four-inch  pots  about  the  middle  of  April,  stopped 
once  after  planting  out,  and  lifted  and  planted  upon  the  benches  about  the 
middle  of  July,  came  into  full  flower  in  the  early  part  of  October ;  while,  upon 
another  bench,  where  the  plants  were  propagated  the  latter  part  of  Febru- 
ary, set  out  from  two-inch  pots  at  the  same  period  as  the  earlier  struck  stock, 
but  cut  back  once  more  and  planted  upon  the  benches  at  the  same  time,  did 
not  produce  any  blooms  until  Christmas,  and  even  later;  while  the  same 
plants  which  were  stopped  but  once  after  planting  came  into  flower  a  full 
month  earlier. 

Occasionally,  a  variety  will  show  some  peculiarity  in  bud  development, 
such  as  opening  the  flower  on  one  side  only,  under  certain  treatment.  Thus, 
William  Scott,  when  too  highly  fed  with  manures  excessively  rich  in  nitro- 
gen and  potash,  failed  to  open  the  blooms,  the  petals  having  cohered  at  the 

222 


fc>  8 

«     .0 


o 


, 

s  <e 

o  o 

O  O 


5     ,S> 

11 

^     = 


Sports  and  Variations 

edges.  Daybreak  and  its  progeny  give  many  one-sided  flowers,  when  grown 
in  a  very  rich  soil,  and  highly  fed.  Some  varieties  burst  the  calyx  badly  when 
grown  in  a  low  temperature.  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson  and  Eldorado  are 
examples  of  this  class.  Other  varieties  burst  the  calyx  if  over-watered. 
Mrs.  Lawson  is  apt  to  do  this,  and  during  the  dark  winter  months  should  be 
kept  a  little  on  the  dry  side.  Other  varieties  show  a  marked  disposition  to 
develop  rust,  or  other  fungous  diseases.  Such  kinds  should  be  discarded  as 
seed  or  pollen  parents.  Breeding  from  disease-resisting  sorts  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. 

Sports   and  Variations 

A  carnation  sport  may  be  described  as  a  distinct  and  definite  variation 
from  the  regular  type  of  the  variety.  This  variation  may  consist  of  a  change 
in  color;  that  is,  a  plant  bearing  scarlet  blooms  may  give  a  snow-white 
flower  upon  one  branch.  The  cuttings  taken  from  this  branch  will  probably 
produce  a  certain  proportion  of  plants  that  will  reproduce  the  white  form ; 
but  a  certain  number  will  revert  toward  the  type,  and  produce  scarlet 
blooms.  Some  of  the  plants  may  produce  white  flowers ;  others  blooms  that 
are  parti-colored,  or  variegated ;  others  will  produce  white  blooms  upon  one 
portion  of  the  plant,  and  flowers  of  the  type  upon  the  remainder.  Continual 
selection  from  the  branches  producing  the  white  blooms,  and  particularly 
from  plants  that  reproduce  all  white  flowers,  will  finally  fix  the  sport,  and  it 
then  becomes  a  variety.  This  type  of  sporting  is  called  "bud  variation." 

"Color  sports"  are  frequently  very  unreliable,  especially  where  there  is 
no  variation  in  the  habit  of  the  plant ;  but  frequently  color  sports  are  accom- 
panied with  a  variation  in  the  habit  as  well,  and,  in  such  cases,  they  are  apt 
to  be  more  permanent. 

There  are  also  sports  in  time  of  blooming.  For  instance,  a  very  late 
variety  may  produce  branches  that  give  flowers  early  in  the  season,  although 
the  blooms  may  be  the  same  as  those  of  the  type.  A  selection  of  propagating 
wood  from  these  earlier  flowering  branches  will,  in  time,  fix  a  variety  which 
will  remain  constant  as  an  early  bloomer. 

There  is  also  more  or  less  variation  in  the  habits  of  plants  which  might 
be  termed  "foliage  sports ;"  that  is,  varieties  with  narrow  foliage  and  rather 
slender,  weak  stems,  may  produce  strong  shoots,  bearing  broad  foliage ;  this 
characteristic  may  also  be  fixed  by  the  process  of  selecting  the  propagating^ 
wood. 

Frequently,  variegated  carnations  will  give  self-colored  flowers  of  the 
same  shade  as  the  markings  of  the  blooms  which  exist  in  the  type.  In  such 

224 


Seed   Sports 

cases,  these  sports  are  not  apt  to  be  constant,  as  there  is  a  tendency  to  revert 
to  the  type.  An  example  of  this  is  seen  in  the  well-known  red  form  of  Mrs. 
George  M.  Bradt,  which  is  produced,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  wherever 
the  variety  is  grown.  While  this  form  has  been  fixed,  to  some  extent,  I 
have  never  yet  seen  a  stock  of  the  so-called  Red  Bradt  which  did  not  produce 
more  or  less  flowers  of  the  variegated  form.  While  in  the  case  of  the  Bride 
rose,  it  seems,  to  have  been  proved  that  a  sport  in  a  rose  may  be  of  much 
more  value  than  the  parent,  the  same  cannot  be  claimed  as  true  of  carnation 
sports,  for,  with  comparatively  few  exceptions,  the  latter  are  of  but  doubtful 
value. 

They  are,  in  general,  a  reversion  toward  some  one  of  the  parent  types; 
and  as  the  modern  carnation  is  the  product  of  hybridization,  and  as  these 
hybrids  are  selected  because  they  are  improvements  upon  the  type  from  which 
they  have  been  produced,  any  reversion  toward  the  parental  type  is  apt  to  be 
one  of  decadence,  rather  than  one  of  improvement. 

Seed  Sports 

Among  carnation  hybrids,  frequent  variations  in  seedlings  are  noted, 
which  cannot  be  accounted  for  in  the  pedigrees  of  the  seedling  parents.  Thus, 
a  cross  between  a  crimson  and  a  scarlet ;  or  a  cross  between  two  crimsons ;  or 
a  cross  between  two  scarlets,  all  of  the  parents  in  the  above  cases  having 
crimson  and  scarlet  pedigrees,  have  produced  snow-white  blooms,  though 
there  be  no  trace  of  white  blood  for  many  generations  in  the  seedling  parent- 
age. Such  variations  may  well  be  termed  "seed  sports,"  and  these  are,  in 
turn,  apt  to  produce  sports  due  to  blood  variation,  frequently  throwing  strains 
of  crimson  or  scarlet  flowers,  or  blooms  with  white  grounds  and  crimson 
or  scarlet  markings.  I  have  seen  some  remarkable  seed  sports  produced 
from  crimson  crosses.  In  some  instances  these  have  been  pure  white ;  in 
others,  delicate  salmon  pink  selfs,  and,  again,  flesh  pink  grounds,  delicately 
edged,  or  dotted,  with  crimson  or  purple.  Further,  the  yellow  and  white 
variegated  sections  are  apt  to  sport  backward  and  forward;  that  is,  yellow 
crosses  will  frequently  produce  white  blooms  with  the  same  color  markings 
existing  in  the  parents ;  and,  occasionally,  crosses  among  the  white  variegated 
section  will  produce  flowers  with  yellow  grounds. 


22=; 


CHAPTER    XXII 

The   Ideal  Carnation 

MUCH  has  been  said  about  the  Ideal  Carnation,  and  now  and  then  an  en- 
thusiastic seedling  grower,  or  an  admirer  of  the  Divine  Flower,  gives 
to  the  world  his  description  of  what  he  considers  an  ideal  carnation. 
Undoubtedly  that  Will-o'-the-wisp  has  bothered  the  minds  of  carnation  lovers 
for  the  past  three  centuries,  for  as  early  as  1619  we  find  a  good  description 
of  a  method  of  growing  carnation  flowers  in  winter  in  a  little  work  entitled 
"The  Garden  of  Eden ;  an  accurate  description  of  all  flowers  and  fruits  now 
growing  in  England,  with  particular  rules  how  to  advance  their  nature  and 
growth,  as  well  as  seeds  and  herbs,  and  the  secret  ordering  of  trees  and 
plants,  by  that  learned  and  great  observer,  Sir  Hugh  Plat,  Knight.  (Fifth 
Edition  London,  1659),"  of  which  the  following  is  an  extract: 

"To  have  Roses  or  Carnations  growing  in  winter,  place  them  in  a  room  that  may 
"some  way  be  kept  warm,  either  with  a  dry  fire  or  with  the  steam  of  hot  water  con- 
"veyed  by  a  pipe  fastened  to  the  cover  of  a  pot,  that  is  kept  seething  over  some  idle 
"fire,  now  and  then  exposing  them  in  a  warm  day,  from  twelve  to  two  in  the  Sun,  or 
"to  the  rain  if  it  happen  to  rain ;  or  if  it  rain  not  in  convenient  time,  set  your  pots 
"having  holes  in  the  bottom  in  pans  of  rain  water,  and  so  moisten  the  roots. 

"I  have  known  Master  Jacob  of  the  Glassehouse  to  have  Carnations  all  the  winter 
"by  the  benefit  of  a  room  that  was  near  his  glass  house  fire;  and  I  myself,  by  nipping 
"off  the  branches  of  Carnations  when  they  began  first  to  spire,  and  so  preventing  the 
"first  bearing,  have  had  flowers  in  Lent,  by  keeping  the  pots  all  night  in  a  close  room, 
"and  exposing  them  to  the  Sun  in  the  day  time,  out  at  the  windows,  when  the  wether 
"was  temperate;  this  may  be  added  to  the  Garden  (mentioned  Nu.  29)  to  grace  it 
"in  winter,  if  the  room  stand  conveniently  for  the  purpose. 

"You  shall  oftentimes  preserve  the  life  of  a  Carnation  or  Gilliflower  growing  in 
"a  pot,  that  is  almost  dead  and  withered,  by  breaking  out  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  and 
"covering  the  pot  in  good  earth,  and  also  the  old  stalks  that  spring  from  the  roots; 
"but  every  third  or  fourth  year,  it  is  good  to  slip  and  new  set  them." 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  winter  culture  of  carnations  was 
known  at  least  300  years  ago.  In  the  Gardeners'  Magazine  of  Botany  for 
1850,  an  article,  written  by  Mr.  George  Glenny,  on  some  points  of  excellence 
in  florists'  flowers,  gives  an  idea  of  some  of  the  attributes  that  might  con- 

226 


The  Ideal  Carnation 

tribute  to  an  ideal  carnation.  Mr.  Glenny  said :  "As  there  is  nothing  more 
essential  to  the  improvement  of  flowers  than  a  knowledge  of  what  would 
constitute  perfection,  it  may  be  acceptable  if  we  give  a  slight  sketch  of  the 
principal  features  desirable  in  some  of  the  more  popular  of  our  ornamental 
plants  and  florists'  flowers,  that  those  who  raise  from  seed  may  be  aware  of 
the  points  most  esteemed  when  they  select  for  future  cultivation.  The  claims 
which  seem  more  or  less  to  predominate  are :  First,  PERFUME  ;  desirable  in 
everything,  whether  gay  or  otherwise;  witness  the  violet,  mignonette,  pink, 
stock,  carnation,  wallflower,  sweet  pea  and  heliotrope  among  flowers ;  and  the 
rose,  thorn,  sweetbrier,  honeysuckle,  magnolia,  clematis,  etc.,  among  shrubs. 
Second,  CONTINUOUS  BLOOMING;  even  without  perfume,  as  in  the  scarlet 
geranium,  verbena,  china  rose,  dahlia,  convolvulus,  heliotrope,  calceolaria,  etc. 
Third,  ELEGANCE  OF  HABIT  IN  THE  PLANT,  as  in  the  fuchsia,  and  in  most 
evergreens,  especially  the  holly,  box,  laurel,  and  nearly  all  the  coniferse. 
Fourth,  SPLENDOR  OF  THE  FLOWER;  as  in  the  camellia,  pelargonium,  erica, 
azalea.,  rhododendron,  ranunculus,  anemone,  etc.  All  these  points  are  desir- 
able, and  although  some  subjects  may  possess  only  one  of  these  in  an  ele- 
mental degree,  there  are  others  which  possess  more  than  one,  though  perhaps 
not  so  desirable  as  some  others  may  possess  the  individual  properties." 

In  discussing  this  question,  Mr.  Glenny,  referring  to  the  tulip,  remarks  as 
follows :  "As  regards  individual  properties  and  qualities,  perhaps  no  flower 
has  caused  more  discussion  than  the  tulip.  The  form  alone  has  occupied  the 
attention  of  many  who  have  endeavored  to  upset  those  laws  which  were  laid 
down  in  1832,  but  which  stand  to  this  day  as  the  only  standard  in  spite  of  all 
that  has  been  written  to  the  contrary  from  that  time  to  the  present  day." 

In  the  same  magazine,  descriptions  and  cuts  of  perfect  picotees  as  well  as 
perfect  carnations  are  given,  with  reproductions  of  the  varieties  of  these  re- 
spective flowers  which  growers  had  been  able  to  make  approach  most  closely 
the  arbitrary  ideal  outlined.  A  reference  to  Figs.  I  and  2  will  give  the 
reader  a  good  conception  of  the  ideal  which  the  carnation  grower  of  1850 
was  seeking  to  produce  among  picotees.  Fig.  I  was  described  as  the  Mrs. 
Norman,  a  heavy  edged  picotee,  raised  by  N.  Norman,  a  well-known  culti- 
vator, of  Woolwich*,  and  was  raised  from  seed  saved  from  Headley's  King 
James  fertilized  with  pollen  of  Ely's  Emperor,  both  heavy,  red  edged  flowers. 
Comparing  the  two  cuts,  the  modern  carnation  grower  will  be  at  once  im- 
pressed with  a  stiff,  wooden-like  appearance  of  the  illustration  denoting  the 
perfect  picotee.  Again  referring  to  Figs.  3  and  4,  we  have  what  at  that  day 
was  laid  down  as  the  proper  dimensions  of  a  perfect  carnation,  and  also  one 
of  the  best  examples  of  the  bloom  that  nearest  approximated  the  ideal  of  that 

227 


The  Ideal  Carnation 

day.  Fig.  3  is  described  as  Puxley's  Emperor,  a  scarlet  bizarre,  raised  by 
Mr.  Puxley  in  1848,  a  remarkably  large  and  showy  kind,  of  good  habit  and 
free  growth.  It  is  stated  as  a  fact  worth  recording  that  Mr.  Puxley,  though 
an  extensive  grower,  had  only  two  kinds  of  carnations  in  his  garden  at  that 
time  which  were  not  originated  by  himself. 

Further  comparing  the  ideal  with  the  attainable  carnation  of  that  date, 
one  is  once  more  impressed  with  the  stiffness,  formality  and  lack  of  grace  in 
the  so-called  ideal,  or  perfect  carnation.  In  those  days  nothing  but  bizarres, 
flakes  and  picotees  were  grown.  So  far  as  carnation  literature  discloses  to 
us,  selfs  were  not  desirable,  consequently  were  not  cultivated.  At  the  present 
time  the  American  carnation  grower  seems  to  be  working  in  an  entirely  differ- 
ent field  from  that  of  the  English  cultivator  of  earlier  days.  The  shell  petal, 
so  much  valued  by  the  English  grower,  seems  to  be  but  little  liked  by  the 
American  public,  for  the  reason  that  in  our  climate  during  bright,  sunny 
weather  the  moisture  evaporates  from  the  edges  of  the  petals,  drying  them  up 
and  drawing  them  together  toward  the  center  in  a  cup-shaped  manner,  thus 
producing  a  sleepy  appearance  in  the  flower,  which  is  fatal  to  its  sale. 

Among  the  many  smooth-edged  seedlings  which  we  have  raised  at 
Queens  quite  a  number  of  them  develop  beautifully  and  keep  well  during 
dark,  winter  weather,  but  as  soon  as  exposed  to  the  bright,  sunny  days  of 
February  and  March  they  take  on  their  sleepy  character;  and  during  the 
months  of  April  and  May  are  comparatively  valueless.  The  laced  or  ser- 
rated-edged petal  seems  to  stand  far  better  in  our  climate,  for  even  after  the 
edge  of  the  petal  has  become  slightly  withered  and  dried  it  does  not  alter  the 
shape  of  the  flower,  consequently  the  bloom  is  still  presentable  in  appearance ; 
and  it  may  be  stated  that  invariably  the  flower  with  the  lace-edged 
petal  is  far  more  durable  and  lasting  than  the  shell-petaled  bloom. 

Among  American  seedling  growers  of  the  present  day  more  attention  is 
perhaps  paid  to  form  than  is  warranted  by  the  tastes  of  our  public.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  devotion  of  the  carnation  grower  in  England  to  the  produc- 
tion of  perfectly  formal  flowers  finally  wrought  the  downfall  of  the  English 
carnation,  which,  in  a  measure,  passed  out  of  popularity.  Up  to  the  present 
time  the  American  seedling  grower  has  not  been  able  to  make  so  much 
progress  toward  the  production  of  formal  blooms  as  to  rob  the  carnation 
of  that  great  wealth  of  artistic  variation,  which  probably  has  contributed  more 
to  the  increase  of  the  consumption  of  carnations  in  the  United  States  than  any 
other  one  point. 

So  far  as  artistic  taste  is  concerned,  there  is  as  much  to  be  said  in  favor 
of  the  ragged,  yet  artistic,  graceful  appearance  of  the  heavily  fringed  carna- 

229 


The  Ideal  Carnation 

tion  as  there  is  in  favor  of  the  perfectly  formal  flower  of  the  English  grower. 
The  ragged  bloom  gives  pleasure  to  many  who  purchase  it,  and  the  formal 
flower  gives  pleasure  as  well,  and  who  is  to  say  that  either  shall  be  denied  to 
the  lover  of  flowers  ? 

If  I  were  asked  to  describe  the  perfect  carnation  I  would  reply  that 
there  could  be  perfect  carnations  of  several  different  classes.  For  instance, 
there  could  be  a  shell-petaled  bloom  that  would  closely  approach  perfection ; 
there  could  also  be  a  semi-shell-petaled  flower  that  would  be  a  perfect  one  of 
its  class ;  and  then,  again,  there  could  be  flowers  the  petals  of  which  were 
heavily  laced,  which  could  also  be  considered  the  perfection  of  their  type. 

I  will  then  take  the  ground  that  no  single  form  of  carnation  can  be  ad- 
judged as  perfect  or  ideal ;  but  that  many  variations  in  type  may  be  success- 
fully grown  and  will  please  a  wider  range  of  people  than  if  one  formal  type 
be  produced.  This  does  not,  however,  prevent  the  fixing  of  a  scale  of  virtues 
which  all  good  carnations  should  possess.  These  necessary  attributes  might 
be  stated  as  Color,  Fragrance,  Substance,  Form,  Habit  ,and  General  Appear- 
ance when  the  blooms  are  massed. 

COLOR  I  should  place  at  the  head  of  the  three  most  important  qualities 
(FRAGRANCE  and  SUBSTANCE  being  the  remaining  two),  and  it  should  be  of 
a  pure,  clear,  pleasing  tone,  or  combination  of  tones.  At  this  date  no  dull  or 
impure  tints  should  be  tolerated,  and,  above  all,  the  tints  should  be  durable  and 
retain  their  pleasing  tones  long  after  the  blooms  are  cut. 

FRAGRANCE  I  consider  one  of  the  cardinal  virtues  of  the  carnation,  for 
throughout  its  entire  history  its  fragrance  has  been  noted  as  one  of  its  chief 
attractions.  A  carnation  without  fragrance  always  seems  to  me  like  the 
comb  without  the  honey. 

SUBSTANCE  stands  on  an  even  footing  with  fragrance  and  color,  for 
without  substance  the  colors  fade,  the  blooms  quickly  wither  and  die  and 
pass  away  like  a  myth.  Substance  contributes  so  much  to  form  and  durabil- 
ity of  the  flower  that  no  grower  of  fine  carnations  can  afford  to  give  it  other 
than  an  important  place  in  his  scale  of  virtues. 

FORM  and  HABIT  and  GENERAL  APPEARANCE  stand  relatively  second  in 
importance  to  color,  fragrance  and  substance,  though  they  are  all  so  essential 
that  none  can  be  properly  omitted  in  judging  the  merits  of  any  carnation. 

FORM  may  vary  to  a  considerable  extent  and  be  of  several  different  types, 
such  as  the  shell-petaled  bloom  of  the  English  garden,  the  serrated-petaled 
flower  of  our  American  varieties,  or  the  highly  laced,  or  feathered-petaled 
blossom  of  the  Marguerite  type.  The  general  contour  of  the  bloom  should 
verge  toward  the  symmetrical ;  the  guard  petals  should  be  broad,  stand  well 

230 


The  Ideal  Carnation 

out  of  the  calyx  and  turn  at  right  angles  to  the  stem,  spreading  broadly  and 
evenly  and  firmly  supporting  the  center  mass  of  petals,  which  should  form  a 
semi-circular  periphery.  A  firm  calyx  that  does  not  burst  is  always  a  neces- 
sary adjunct  of  a  good  carnation. 

HABIT  is  also  all  important,  because  it  controls  the  stern  and  determines 
what  sort  of  a  crop  of  flowers  we  may  expect.  The  habit  should  be  vigor- 
ous, but  not  gross  or  coarse.  The  stem  should  be  stiff,  wiry  and  strong 
enough  to  hold  the  bloom  erect,  but  not  rigidly  upright.  The  growth  should 
be  compact,  grass  not  too  coarse;  and  the  plant  should  be  a  rapid  yet  firm 
grower  and  an  early,  free  and  continuous  bloomer. 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  of  the  blooms  should  also  have  consideration,  in- 
asmuch as  many  varieties  deficient  in  form  and  appearance  when  taken  as 
single  flowers  are  very  useful  and  valuable  when  massed  in  quantities. 

SIZE  :  You  will  wonder  why  I  have  not  given  Size  a  more  prominent 
position,  and  why  I  leave  it  until  the  last.  Well,  the  reason  is  just  this:  I 
fear  that  too  much  prominence  has  already  been  given  to  the  size  of  carna- 
tion flowers,  and  that  in  the  end  we  may  commit  the  error  of  producing 
coarse  blooms,  deficient  in  fragrance  and  grace,  and  thereby  impair  the 
popularity  of  our  carnations.  Flowers  two  to  two-and-a-half  inches  in 
diameter  are  large  enough  for  ordinary  carnations,  and  two-and-a-half  to 
three-and-a-half  inch  blooms,  with  an  occasional  "Jumbo,"  four  inches  across, 
should  satisfy  the  craving  for  large  size. 

I  perhaps  ought  to  refrain  from  naming  any  varieties  possessing  superior 
merit  as  perfect  carnations,  but  if  one  wishes  examples,  Governor  Roosevelt, 
for  form  and  stem,  might  be  cited,  while  Prosperity,  though  of  a  different 
type,  possesses  splendid  form  and  is  large  enough  to  suit  all  requirements. 


231 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

The  Future  of   the  Carnation— Who  Shall  Grow 
Carnations— Profits  of  Carnation  Growing- 
Does  It  Pay  to  Do  Things  Well? 

THE  rapid  development  in  the  production  of  carnations,  which  has  oc- 
curred during  the  past  ten  years,  has  frequently  caused  those  engaged 
in  the  business  to  question  the  probable  future  of  the  Divine  Flower, 
and  to  consider  whether  its  popularity  is  a  passing  fad,  or  is  founded  upon 
such  intrinsic  merit  as  will  insure  the  flower's  permanent  continuance  in  popu- 
lar favor.  Judging  from  past  history,  and,  again,  from  present  indications,  the 
latter  proposition  would  seem  to  be  tenable.  The  carnation  has  become  one 
of  the  most  important  of  staple  florists'  flowers,  and  is  now  so  generally  used 
as  to  be  regarded  as  a  floral  necessity.  Among  all  flowers  there  is  none  that 
may  be  considered  more  useful  than  the  carnation ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  only  rival 
the  rose  has  thus  far  met,  for  even  at  the  present  time  its  popularity  is 
not  second  to  that  of  Flora's  Queen.  Its  consumption  fully  equals  in  num- 
bers that  of  roses,  and,  probably,  may  exceed  it  within  a  few  years.  This 
increasing  popularity  may  be  readily  accounted  for.  While  the  common  vari- 
eties can  be  sold  with  profit  at  modest  prices,  the  bountiful  response  of  the 
carnation  to  superior  cultural  methods  is  productive  of  blooms  of  such  excel- 
lence as  to  satisfy  the  most  fastidious  tastes,  or  the  extravagant  desires  of 
the  very  rich. 

While  competition  among  growers  will  tend  to  decrease  the  price  of  the 
ordinary  grades  of  carnations,  this  diminution  will  be  amply  counterbalanced 
by  an  attendant  increase  in  consumption,  as  values  are  brought  within  the 
reach  of  people  with  limited  means ;  while  the  better  classes  of  blooms, 
especially  those  which  may  be  considered  the  finest,  or  fancies,  will  always 
command  prices  commensurate  with  their  quality  and  cost  of  production. 

The  continuing  improvement  in  the  carnation,  and  the  introduction  of 
new  and  interesting  varieties,  must  always  exercise  an  influence  that  will 
attract  the  attention  of  the  flower  buyer ;  and  if  the  producers  of  the  Divine 
Flower  will  carefully  preserve  that  sweetest  of  its  attributes — the  rich,  clove 

232 


Who  Shall  Grow  Carnations 

fragrance — and  not  commit  the  error  of  producing  blooms  solely  with  a  view 
to  enormous  size,  stiff  stems,  and  regular  form,  the  popularity  of  the  carnation 
ought  to  be  conceded  as  a  permanent  factor  in  commercial  floriculture.  If 
the  clove  gillyflower — i.  e.,  the  clove  pink,  mentioned  in  the  early  history  of 
the  English  carnation — so  richly  fragrant  as  to  scent  a  whole  greenhouse, 
were  still  in  existence,  its  popularity  would  undoubtedly  be  as  great  as  in  the 
olden  days. 

Who   Shall  Grow  Carnations 

During  each  year  the  author  receives  a  number  of  letters  from  enthu- 
siastic lovers  of  the  carnation,  who  desire  to  engage  in  its  commercial 
culture.  These  letters  come  from  and  represent  a  varied  class  of  people, 
being  received  not  only  from  the  aged  financier,  or  professional  man,  con- 
templating retiring  from  active  business  life  and  desirous  of  spending  his 
remaining  years  in  some  light,  interesting  employment,  yet  retaining  enough 
thrift  to  wish  the  occupation  to  pay  its  way,  but  from  the  energetic  lad,  with 
his  career  still  before  him ;  also  the  middle-aged  man,  whose  salary  is  begin- 
ning to  be  insufficient  to  care  properly  for  the  growing  family,  and  who 
hopes,  by  engaging  in  some  side  employment  about  which  he  can  busy  him- 
self before  and  after  business  hours,  to  add,  in  a  slight  measure,  to  his 
income;  as  well  as  from  the  spinster,  who  longs  to  support  the  dependent 
loved  ones  by  engaging  in  some  employment  which  will  save  her  from 
teaching,  the  factory,  the  store  counter,  or,  more  hated  still,  domestic  service. 

These  letters  are  always  interesting,  as  they  disclose  the  existence  of  such 
earnest  hopes  of  success  as  would  call  forth  all  the  energies  of  which  the 
writers  were  capable;  but  they  also  disclose  a  lack  of  practical  horticultural 
experience,  and  indicate  that  the  writers  have  not  formed  any  conception  of 
the  application  necessary  to  master  the  commercial  growing  of  flowers  and 
to  overcome  the  difficulties  connected  with  their  culture,  in  order  to  gain 
a  fair  profit  and  compensation  for  the  labor  entailed  and  capital  invested. 
One  writes  that  she  holds  a  position  as  telegraph  operator  in  a  country  town. 
Her  home  is  but  a  few  rods  from  the  station.  She  has  dependent  upon  her 
an  aged  father.  She  is  imbued  with  the  idea  that  the  culture  of  beautiful 
carnations  will  add  something  to  her  income,  and  prove  a  pleasure  as  well. 
Then,  too,  she  has  an  advantage:  the  aged  father  will  be  only  too  glad  to 
take  care  of  the  plants  during  the  hours  she  is  employed  in  the  office.  She 
has  but  a  hundred,  or  two  hundred  dollars  at  the  most  at  her  command, 
and  has  already  expended,  perhaps,  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  in  the  build- 
ing of  a  lean-to  greenhouse  against  the  dwelling  before  she  applied  for 

233 


Who  Shall  Grow  Carnations 

advice,  so  that  she  is  already  committed  to  her  project  before  the  probability 
of  success  or  failure  can  be  discussed.  The  best  advice  is  given,  and  she 
is  furnished  with  plants  in  the  best  possible  condition,  replaced,  perhaps,  once 
or  twice,  as  they  are  lost  through  improper  treatment.  She  struggles  hope- 
fully and  bravely  on  for,  perhaps,  two  or  three  years,  only  to  learn  that  the 
well-equipped  florist,  but  a  few  blocks  away,  has  such  superior  facilities  for 
the  growing,  and  especially  the  selling  of  flowers,  that  she  has  but  a  slender 
chance  to  make  even  a  moderate  margin  of  profit;  and,  finally,  becoming 
discouraged,  she  gives  up  the  venture. 

Another  example  is  the  broker,  who  has  struck  it  rich  in  Manhattan 
Elevated,  American  Iron  and  Steel,  or  reaped  a  colossal  fortune  by  engineer- 
ing the  combination  of  enormous  interests,  and  who,  finding  himself  replete 
with  wealth,  expresses  his  desire  to  do  something  with  his  accumulations  by 
laying  out  a  generously  planned  country  seat,  and  building  thereon  a  sumptu- 
ous establishment,  with  palatial  glass  structures  in  which  he  designs  to 
grow  exotic  flowers  and  fruits  to  gratify  his  new-born  tastes.  Within  a 
few  years,  the  contemplation  of  the  large  expense  account,  which  neces- 
sarily accompanies  such  luxurious  surroundings,  awakens  a  vein  of  retrench- 
ment and  economy,  and  he  begins  considering  how  he  can  manage  his 
estate,  and  make  it  support  a  portion  of  its  financial  burden.  One  of  the 
first  problems  he  is  likely  to  tackle  will  be  the  extensive  greenhouse  establish- 
ment ;  and  his  faithful  and  enthusiastic  gardener  will  generally  be  able  to 
figure,  to  his  employer's  satisfaction,  munificent  profits,  based  upon  the  prices 
which  he  is  obliged  to  pay  to  the  Broadway  or  Fifth  avenue  florist  for  the 
selected  fancy  blooms  bought  only  during  the  holiday  season,  when  the 
supply  from  his  own  greenhouses  is  not  sufficient  to  cover  his  requirements 
in  the  way  of  remembering  his  friends.  He  tarries  not  long  in  arriving  at  a 
decision.  He  will  grow  either  carnations,  roses,  or  orchids.  He  usually  con- 
siders this  question  late  in  the  season.  There  is  no  time  to  fill  the  houses 
with  roses ;  and  orchids  must  be  left  until  the  following  spring,  so  he  falls, 
naturally,  into  growing  carnations,  even  if  only  for  the  present,  until  time 
is  afforded  to  prepare  for  the  other  and  more  expensive  stock.  Price-lists 
are  hurriedly  sent  for;  a  stock  of  field-grown  plants,  consisting  of  a  wide 
range  of  varieties,  is  purchased  from  various  growers ;  soil  is  hastily  gath- 
ered together ;  the  benches  are  filled ;  the  plants  arrive ;  the  planting  is  pushed 
forward  with  energy ;  and  within  a  space  of  perhaps  six  to  eight  weeks  the 
place  has  bloomed  forth  into  a  full-fledged  commercial  florist's  establishment. 
Expensive  help  is  employed ;  the  newest  and  latest  fads  in  the  way  of  car- 
nation supports  and  other  paraphernalia  are  purchased ;  and  the  proprietor 

234 


Who  Shall  Grow  Carnations 

is  as  well  pleased  for  the  time  being  as  if  he  were  engineering  a  successful 
corner  in  coal  stocks.  But  the  reckoning  day  is  at  hand.  The  time  comes 
when  the  returns  from  the  commission  house  begin  to  give  a  pointer  as  to 
what  the  profits  bid  fair  to  be.  It  is  then  that  the  floricultural  novice  learns 
that  there  is  a  wide  difference  in  value  between  the  flowers  as  they  leave  the 
handsome  store  of  the  Broadway  florist,  delivered  in  the  liveried  equipage 
drawn  by  expensive  horses,  and  the  price  at  which  they  leave  the  com- 
mission house;  and  this  variation  he  finds  one  that  cannot  be  overcome, 
unless  he  himself  be  willing  to  engage  in  the  retail  florist  business  and 
assume  its  attendant  risks  and  expenses.  His  vision  of  handsome  profits 
vanishes.  He  finds  that  the  possession  of  immense  wealth  does  not  make 
him  a  successful  commercial  grower,  and  that  the  enthusiastic,  skilled  florist, 
who  not  only  loves  the  carnation  as  a  flower,  but  who  couples  with  that  love 
a  shrewd  ability  to  make  the  best  out  of  little,  and  who  is  willing  to  make 
the  many  personal  sacrifices  necessary  to  produce  the  best  results,  is  able  to 
obtain  better  flowers,  and  to  sell  them  at  better  prices  than  the  whilom 
grower  is  able  to  get  for  the  costly  products  of  his  expensive  greenhouses, 
which  he  finds  must  be  sold  upon  an  unprofitable  basis ;  and  after  a  period 
of  time  he,  too,  disappears  from  the  ranks  of  the  commercial  florist. 

Another  would-be  carnation  grower  is  exemplified  by  the  following 
letters : 

J.  Kelsey  Blank.  Office  of  Blank  &  Co., 

W.  Atwood  Blank.  Manufacturing  Chemists, 

469  Blank  Street,  Chicago,  111. 
My  dear  Mr.  W : 

This  will  introduce  to  you  my  gardener,  Mr.  John  Rowls,  who  has  charge  of  my 
country  place,  Overlook  Manor.  You  will  find  that  Mr.  Rowls  is  a  very  capable  florist. 

Now,  my  dear  Mr.  W ,  I  wish  to  ask  a  little  advice.     I  have  at  Overlook  Manor 

quite  an  extensive  greenhouse,  sufficiently  large  to  more  than  provide  my  household 
with  such  flowers  as  we  desire.  Mr.  Rowls  has  been  marketing  the  surplus  carnations, 
and  has  always  received  the  very  highest  prices  for  them.  He  thinks  the  climate  and 
soil  at  Overlook  especially  well  adapted  for  growing  fine  carnations.  Mr.  Rowls  has 
advised  me,  that  with  the  building  of  a  few  additional  greenhouses  the  production  of 
carnations  will  be  increased  so  that  enough  can  be  sold  to  materially  help  defray  the 
expenses  of  maintaining  Overlook. 

I  have  a  surplus  income  from  my  business  which  will  enable  me  to  build  the  needed 
additional  houses,  and  I  contemplate  engaging  in  growing  carnations.  Knowing  you 
to  be  one  of  the  most  successful  growers  in  the  country,  and  one  who  seems  to  have 
made  considerable  money  out  of  the  business,  I  take  the  liberty  of  asking  you  to  advise 
me  as  to  their  culture  and  the  style  of  house  I  should  build;  also,  will  you  kindly  fiir- 

235 


Who  Shall  Grow  Carnations 

nish  me  with  a  list  of  such  varieties  as  you  would  advise  me  to  grow — those  that  can  be 
sold  to  the  best  advantage? 

Any  courtesy  you  may  show  Mr.  Rowls  will  be  much  appreciated,  and,  in  con- 
sideration of  your  advice  and  kindness,  I  will  purchase  the  entire  stock  I  may  require 
from  your  establishment.  What  chances  do  you  think  I  would  have  of  succeeding  in 
the  undertaking? 

Thanking  you  in  advance  for  your  kind  consideration,  I  remain, 

Yours  sincerely,  J.  KELSEY  BLANK. 

J.  Kelsey  Blank,  Esq. 
My  dear  Sir: 

Replying  to  your  esteemed  favor  of  recent  date,  I  have  given  your  gardener, 
Mr.  Rowls,  whatever  information  he  asked  for.  In  regard  to  your  undertaking  growing 
carnations  in  a  commercial  way,  I  think  you  would  have  as  good  a  chance  of  succeed- 
ing as  I  would,  should  I  enter  the  business  of  manufacturing  chemicals.  No  doubt  a 
man  of  your  experience  and  ability  would  succeed,  provided  you  were  able  to  give  car- 
nation growing  the  attention  and  study  it  requires.  Your  inquiry  has  awakened  the 
suggestion  in  my  mind :  Why  should  I  not  engage  in  the  chemical  manufacturing  busi- 
ness? I  have  some  spare  money.  You  could  advise  me  in  the  conduct  of  the  business 
as  well  as  I  could  advise  you  in  the  florist  business;  then,  too,  I  could  purchase  my 
stock,  to  start  with,  from  your  firm.  What  do  you  say  to  our  trading  business  expe- 
rience in  this  way?  Sincerely  yours,  C.  W.  WARD. 

Office  of  Blank  &  Co., 

Manufacturing  Chemists, 
469  Blank  Street,  Chicago,  111. 

My  dear  Mr.  W : 

Many  thanks  for  your  kind  letter  of  the  2Oth  inst.  You  have  opened  my  eyes  about 
the  florist's  business.  I  have  concluded  that  it  is  best  for  every  shoemaker  to  stick  to  his 
last,  and  I  shall  not  engage  in  growing  carnations  for  sale. 

Sincerely  yours,  J.  KELSEY  BLANK. 

But  every  one  who  essays  the  culture  of  carnations  does  not  make  a 
failure,  and  there  may  be  individuals  among  any  of  the  above-mentioned 
classes  of  people  who  will  make  a  success  of  the  undertaking.  Upon  general 
principles,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  most  successful  growers  of  carnations 
will  be  those  who  combine  practical  cultural  skill  and  knowledge  of  flowers 
with  an  inborn  love  for  them  so  strong  that  those  making  the  effort  may  be 
willing  to  make  the  sacrifices  necessary  to  achieve  successful  results.  Never- 
theless, a  genuine  love  of  the  business,  and  a  determination  to  succeed,  will 
frequently  overcome  a  lack  of  cultural  skill;  and  there  are  many  cases  that 
might  be  mentioned  where  the  novice  has  engaged  in  the  culture  of  flowers 
and,  by  dint  of  application,  hard  work  and  perseverance,  made  a  success. 

Would  I  discourage  anyone  who  wished  to  enter  the  florist's  profession  ? 
No,  indeed.  Only  a  note  of  warning,  that  "all  is  not  gold  that  glitters,"  and 

236 


Profits   of  Carnation  Growing 

that  back  of  the  wealth  of  spicy  blooms  there  lies  the  same  old  foundation  of 
the  spade,  the  digging  fork,  the  shovel  and  the  hoe,  with  brawny  hands  and 
arms  and  stout  hearts  to  wield  them.  He  that  would  have  gold  must  dig  for 
it ;  and  he  who  would  grow  flowers  will  get  no  more  for  the  asking  than  would 
the  gold  digger. 

Profits  of  Carnation  Growing 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  embody  in  this  work  any  definite  estimates  of 
the  profits  that  may  pertain  to  commercial  carnation  culture.  To  the  theorist, 
there  is  no  more  agreeable  occupation  than  estimating  beforehand  the  prob- 
able profits  of  any  venture  he  may  be  about  to  engage  in.  Some  one  has  said 
that  "figures  don't  lie!"  I  would  change  this  axiom  into:  "Figures  are 
always  made  to  lie,  when  future  profits  are  computed  upon  the  workings  of 
a  new  venture." 

If  you  ask,  "Is  it  a  profitable  business?"  I  will  reply,  "Yes,  if  properly 
conducted;"  but  will  say  further,  that  I  know  of  no  calling  that  requires 
closer  attention,  or  more  constant  personal  application,  than  that  of  the  com- 
mercial florist.  Like  the  housemaid's  task,  his  work  is  never  done.  Week- 
day and  Sunday,  workday  and  holiday,  by  sunlight  or  lamplight,  his  factory 
is  running  every  full  day  of  twenty-four  hours.  His  employees  may  gauge 
their  day's  work  by  ten  hours,  or  less,  or  more ;  but  his  responsibilities  never 
for  a  moment  cease.  And  the  florist  endures  all  this  upon  a  margin  of  profit  that 
affords  him,  in  a  well-managed  business,  sufficient  only  to  educate  his  family 
and  start  them  on  life's  pathway  upon  but  a  modest  footing,  unless  he  has 
been  fortunate  enough  to  have  located  on  the  margin  of  some  large  city, 
and  purchased  sufficient  real  estate,  the  rise  in  value  of  which  has  brought 
him  riches. 

Commercial  gain  should  not  be  the  sole  and  determining  factor  of  inter- 
est to  the  successful  florist.  The  mere  sordid  pursuit  of  wealth  ill  befits  an 
art  in  which  so  many  possibilities  are  wrapped.  While  the  carnation  enthu- 
siast's life  may  not  be  one  of  ease,  and  while  in  winter  there  are  blizzards, 
snowdrifts  and  ice,  entailing  upon  him  hard  labor  that  rends  his  muscles  and 
sorely  tries  his  patience — for  all  that,  his  calling  has  its  compensations.  Who 
among  the  craft  will  deny  the  pleasures  of  that  most  enjoyable  time  just 
before  the  holidays  when  the  richness  of  the  floral  harvest  is  at  full  tide? 
While  the  fiercest  gales  of  winter  are  wildly  battling  the  drifting  snows 
against  the  glass,  underneath  the  crystal  roofs  there  is  the  coloring  of  spring- 
time ;  and  the  broad  expanse  of  royal  blooms,  redolent  with  the  spicy  odors  of 
the  tropics,  are  waving  with  a  quiet  beauty  peculiarly  their  own,  suggesting 

237 


Does  It  Pay  to  Do  Things  Well  ? 

the  bountifulness  of  swaying  grainfields  during  the  prairie  farmer's  harvest 
time. 

The  President's  favorite  flower  may  be  seen  growing  under  such  an 
expanse  of  crystal  roof  as  to  suggest  the  appellation  of  "carnation  ranch." 
Then,  too,  the  grower  may  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing  that  his  work  has 
the  appreciation  and  approval  of  those  throughout  the  world  whose  eminent 
positions  and  education  have  fitted  them  to  judge  of  his  efforts  from  an 
aesthetic,  as  well  as  a  practical  standpoint. 

The  Divine  Flower  has  received  the  love  and  praise  of  two  of  our  most 
beloved  and  esteemed  Presidents — Mr.  McKinley  and  Mr.  Roosevelt — and, 
within  a  recent  period,  His  Imperial  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  Germany  and 
His  Royal  Highness  King  Edward  of  England  have  done  homage  to  the 
American  carnation. 

Does  It  Pay  To  Do  Things  Well? 

This  question  might  be  answered  by  asking  the  question,  "Does  it 
pay  to  do  them  any  other  way  than  well  ?"  When  it  comes  to  the  culture  of 
flowers,  it  most  certainly  does  not  pay  to  grow  them,  unless  the  undertaking 
is  carried  on  in  a  most  thorough  and  systematic  manner.  Organization, 
method  and  thoroughness  will  accomplish  as  much  in  floriculture  as  in  any 
other  undertaking.  The  successful  horticulturist  must  be  one  who  always 
has  command  of  his  business ;  and  to  accomplish  this,  that  business  must 
be  so  well  organized  that  he  will  have  a  grasp  upon  all  its  details.  In  order 
to  get  the  best  results  from  his  establishment,  every  foot  of  bench  space  needs 
to  be  cultivated  in  the  best  possible  manner.  He  should  know  what  par- 
ticular varieties  of  plants  can  be  profitably  grown,  and  also  be  sufficiently 
well  acquainted  with  the  demands  of  the  market  to  enable  him  to  judge  of 
what  he  can  sell  profitably.  If  he  grows  cut  flowers,  they  should  be  picked 
and  shipped  to  market  in  such  condition  as  will  enable  him  to  secure  the 
highest  prices.  If  plants,  they  should  be  so  well  grown  as  to  make  them 
desirable  purchases.  His  greenhouses  ought  to  be  models  of  cleanliness  and 
neatness.  There  should  be  no  accumulation  of  filth,  or  rotting  material,  under 
the  benches,  or  stood  in  out-of-the-way  corners,  as  such  accumulations 
are  but  the  breeding  places  of  insects  and  disease.  A  neat,  well-kept  estab- 
lishment exercises  a  favorable  impression  upon  the  visitor.  Purchasers 
usually  prefer  to  deal  with  prosperous  concerns ;  and  ill-kept  florists'  estab- 
lishments do  not  convey  an  impression  of  prosperity. 


238 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

Calendar  of  Operations 
January 

Plants  should  now  be  in  bloom.  Maintain  an  even  night  temperature  of 
about  50  to  52  degrees ;  not  exceeding  56  degrees  on  any  variety.  Day 
temperature  65  to  70  degrees.  Give  air  on  all  bright  days.  Don't  hold  the 
houses  too  warm  or  create  a  close,  steaming  atmosphere.  Watch  watering 
carefully ;  the  plants  will  now  begin  to  need  more  water  as  the  days  lengthen 
and  the  sun's  rays  become  more  powerful.  Look  out  for  sudden  rises  in 
temperature  in  the  houses  on  bright  mornings.  Take  cuttings  of  late  bloom- 
ing varieties.  Watch  carefully  for  green  fly,  and  especially  red  spider. 
Fumigation  with  tobacco  at  this  season  is  objectionable,  as  it  ruins  the 
blooms ;  preferably  use  XL- All,  or  tobacco  extract  painted  on  the  pipes  twice 
a  week.  Commence  feeding  the  plants  lightly  with  liquid  manures,  or 
afford  a  light  mulch  of  sheep  manure  about  the  middle  of  the  month. 

February 

Plants  are  now  having  more  active  growth,  and  will  need  more  water 
and  feeding  as  the  days  lengthen.  As  the  season  advances,  green  fly  and  red 
spider  should  be  more  carefully  watched  for.  Thrips  will  now  begin  to 
develop.  Propagation  should  be  fully  under  way.  Plants  are  now  growing 
and  blooming  freely.  Increased  ventilation  should  be  given  on  bright  days. 
Cuttings  taken  in  January  should  be  rooted  and  ready  for  potting  up.  Use 
a  two-inch  pot.  A  soil  composed  of  about  three  parts  yellow  loam,  one  part 
leaf  mould,  one  part  decayed  stable  manure,  a  dash  of  bone  dust  and  one  part 
fibrous  peat,  makes  a  good  potting  soil.  (See  chapter  on  Soils.)  This  soil 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  run  through  a  coarse  sieve.  If  the  compost 
has  been  prepared  six  months  ahead,  so  much  the  better.  Pot  firmly,  as 
this  soil  will  be  very  light.  Cuttings  potted  in  January  will  need  a  shift 
about  the  middle  or  last  of  this  month.  Don't  let  young  plants  get  potbound. 

March 

Propagation  should  still  be  in  full  force.     Select  all  cuttings  carefully 

239 


Calendar   of  Operations 

from  none  but  healthy  plants.  Watch  for  red  spider,  thrips  and  green  fly, 
and  use  proper  preventive  measures.  Watering  must  be  carefully  attended 
to.  Look  out  for  sharp  rises  in  temperature  on  bright  mornings  after  heavy 
firing.  Plants  are  growing  more  rapidly,  and  will  need  increased  quantities 
of  water.  Abundant  ventilation  should  be  carried  whenever  possible. 
Syringe  if  any  trace  of  red  spider  appears ;  a  good  syringing  once  each  week, 
on  a  bright  morning,  will  do  no  harm.  Such  varieties  as  the  Mrs.  Thomas 
W.  Lawson,  Mrs.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Daybreak,  Enchantress,  and  any  of 
the  colors  which  fade  in  bright  sunlight,  should  be  lightly  shaded  by  striping 
the  glass  with  a  thin  paint  made  from  white  lead  and  naphtha.  Make  the 
stripes  four  inches  wide,  with  three  inches  of  clear  glass  between  each  stripe. 
Fumigate  with  extract  of  tobacco,  or  XL-All,  to  destroy  thrips.  Always  cut 
the  blooms  closely  before  fumigating  with  tobacco,  or  syringing  with  salt 
solution.  Pot  all  cuttings  as  soon  as  rooted.  Shift  all  plants  that  need  it  and 
before  they  become  potbound.  Watch  the  young  plants  in  pots  closely ;  don't 
let  them  wilt  for  lack  of  water.  Don't  soak  them  all  the  time;  use  judg- 
ment and  reason  in  watering.  If  young  plants  are  shaded  lightly  during 
the  brightest  part  of  hot  days  it  will  save  excessive  watering.  Young  stock 
that  is  established  should  now  be  in  cool  quarters ;  45  to  48  degrees  at  night 
and  56  to  60  degrees  during  the  day  is  about  the  right  temperature.  Give  an 
abundance  of  air.  Fumigate  freely;  all  young  plants  should  be  set  in  the 
field  absolutely  without  taint  of  any  insect  pest. 

April 

Propagation  may  be  continued,  but  is  now  coming  to  a  close.  Shade  the 
propagating  benches  more  heavily,  and  keep  the  propagating  house  as  cool 
as  possible.  Fresh,  or  sterilized,  sand  only  should  be  used.  All  flowering 
plants  need  a  light  shading.  Keep  down  insects.  Young  plants  are  growing 
and  need  watching  and  prompt  shifting.  Late  blooming  varieties,  such  as 
Prosperity,  Mme.  Diaz  Albertini,  and  others,  may  be  set  in  the  open  ground 
by  the  end  of  this  month,  whenever  temperature  and  soil  conditions  will  per- 
mit. Plants  intended  for  planting  on  benches  for  inside  summer  growth 
should  now  be  in  three-inch  pots,  ready  to  shift  into  four-inch  pots.  Such 
varieties  as  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson  and  Prosperity,  propagated  in  Novem- 
ber and  December,  should  be  in  three  to  three  and  a  half-inch  pots,  according 
to  strength  of  growth,  and  ought  to  be  planted  on  benches  by  May  ist  in  order 
to  get  best  results.  Plough  the  field  intended  for  carnations  just  as  soon  as 
the  soil  is  dry  enough.  If  chemical  fertilizers  are  used,  get  them  into  the 
ground  at  the  first  harrowing.  If  stable  manure  is  to  be  applied  in  the  spring, 

240 


CERISE    PINK   SELF 

PLATE  IV.     CARNATION   MRS.  T.  W,  LAWSON  (FISHER) 


Calendar   of  Operations 

plough  it  under  at  once.  Fumigate  young  stock  either  with  tobacco,  XL- All, 
or  tobacco  extract,  for  three  consecutive  nights  before  the  stock  is  planted  out 
either  in  the  open  ground  or  on  benches.  Exercise  great  care  in  fumigating ; 
don't  overdo  it. 

May 

The  growth  of  the  plants  is  still  increasing.  Insect  pests  will  now  multi- 
ply rapidly  if  not  attended  to  and  destroyed.  If  red  spider  and  thrips  are 
allowed  to  get  full  possession  of  the  plants  at  this  season,  the  grower  might 
as  well  go  out  of  the  carnation  business.  Use  XL- All  for  thrips ;  syringe  for 
red  spider.  (See  Chapter  XII.,  on  Soap  Solution  and  Salt  Solution.)  Fumi- 
gation with  XL-All,  tobacco,  or  tobacco  extract,  will  kill  green  fly.  Plant 
out  all  young  stock  as  fast  as  ready.  Plant  in  freshly  cultivated  soil.  (See 
Chapter  VII.)  Fumigate  all  young  stock  before  planting  out.  All  ground 
should  be  ploughed  a  second  time.  Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  before 
planting  out  is  necessary.  (See  Chapter  IV.,  on  Soils.)  All  blooming  plants 
should  be  lightly  shaded.  Plants  on  the  benches  need  abundant  watering  and 
all  the  air  possible,  and  syringing  once  or  twice  each  week,  if  there  be  any 
indication  of  red  spider. 

Houses  intended  for  indoor  culture  of  plants  in  summer  should  be 
cleaned  out,  the  benches  thoroughly  washed  inside  and  outside  and  under- 
neath, the  roofs  and  sides  of  the  houses  thoroughly  washed  down  inside,  and 
fumigated  by  burning  flour  of  sulphur  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  to  a  house 
twenty  by  one  hundred  feet.  Close  up  the  house  tight  immediately  after 
washing  down,  and  fumigate  while  the  house  is  full  of  moisture.  Place  the 
sulphur  in  several  six-inch  pans,  or  pots,  or  on  plates ;  put  these  at  different 
points  on  the  walks,  drop  in  live  coals,  and  leave  the  house  quickly,  allowing 
the  sulphur  to  burn  itself  out.  This  is  very  effective  if  done  early  on  a 
bright,  warm  day.  Leave  the  house  closed  twenty-four  hours,  then  throw  it 
wide  open  and  wash  down  everything  thoroughly  with  the  hose  and  allow  all 
to  dry  out  for  a  day.  Few  insects  and  fungi  will  survive  this  treatment. 
Look  after  the  shifting  of  all  young  stock.  All  field  stock  should  be  planted 
by  the  last  of  this  month.  Run  the  cultivator  among  all  young  plants  when- 
ever the  surface  of  the  ground  shows  hardening.  Cultivate  after  each  rain. 
Hoe  the  young  plants,  and  break  hard  soil  around  their  necks.  Never  allow 
weeds  to  get  a  foothold.  Plants  in  pots  intended  for  planting  on  the  benches 
in  June  or  July,  should  now  be  plunged  in  a  frame,  in  order  to  harden  them 
off  and  save  care  in  watering.  Sash  should  not  be  put  on  such  plants  except 
in  case  of  heavy  rains  or  a  hard  frost.  When  the  sash  is  on,  give  plenty  of 
air,  even  during  heavy  rains,  by  lifting  up  the  sash  at  the  back. 

16  241 


Calendar   of  Operations 
June 

Plants  will  now  be  in  the  height  of  the  summer  crop  of  bloom,  will 
require  an  increasing  quantity  of  water,  and  may  be  liberally  fed.  The 
amount  of  evaporating  surface  through  the  foliage  and  petals,  in  connection 
with  the  increasing  heat,  will  consume  the  moisture  in  the  soil  five  or  six 
times  as  rapidly  as  during  the  winter  time.  Cuttings  taken  early  in  May  will 
now  be  rooted,  and  should  be  potted  up  immediately  and  set  in  the  open 
ground  as  soon  as  the  roots  have  formed  a  fair-sized  ball.  Cuttings  taken 
from  the  sand  at  this  period  may  be  planted  immediately  in  the  open  ground, 
just  preceding  a  rain.  If  successful  in  planting  out  such  cuttings,  so  that 
they  will  not  receive  a  serious  check,  they  will  make  very  fine  medium-sized 
plants  by  the  ist  to  the  middle  of  September.  The  later-struck  stock  is 
usually  vigorous  and  healthy,  for  the  reason  that  the  cuttings  are  taken  from 
plants  in  excellent  condition.  This,  however,  will  not  prove  true,  if  the  stock 
plants  have  been  starved  and  allowed  to  run  down  in  health. 

All  plants  for  growing  inside  during  summer  should  now  be  upon  the 
benches.  Plants  that  are  intended  for  blooming  in  pots  should  be  shifted 
as  needed,  and  plunged  in  an  open  position  outdoors.  It  is  well  to  place 
the  bottom  of  the  pot  upon  a  floor  of  ashes,  which  should  be  made  firm  by 
rolling  or  beating.  The  position  should  be  sheltered  from  prevailing  winds 
and  exposed  to  full  sunshine,  with  an  abundance  of  room  for  each  plant. 
English  growers  do  not  recommend  plunging  carnations  in  pots,  but  in  our 
hot,  dry  climate  I  think  it  preferable.  The  pots  should  be  raised  and  turned 
every  two  weeks,  in  order  to  break  the  roots  at  the  bottom  and  prevent  the 
plants  from  rooting  through  the  ashes  into  the  soil.  As  fast  as  the  benches 
are  exhausted,  the  plants  should  be  thrown  out  and  the  soil  removed  as 
promptly  as  possible.  I  strongly  advise  the  burning  of  all  discarded  carna- 
tion plants  as  soon  as  thrown  out.  At  this  season  of  the  year,  the  carna- 
tion is  more  or  less  infected  with  various  insects  and  fungi.  If  old  plants 
are  burned  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  greenhouses,  the  insects  as  well  as  their 
eggs  will  be  destroyed ;  whereas,  if  the  plants  are  thrown  out  on  a  heap,  or 
anywhere  upon  the  land,  some  considerable  portion  of  the  insects  will  escape 
to  other  plants,  and  finally  find  their  way  on  to  the  carnation  fields,  or  into 
the  houses,  to  again  annoy  the  grower  and  injure  his  stock. 

Plants  in  the  field  will  need  cultivation  and  frequent  hoeing,  at  least 
once  in  every  two  weeks ;  cultivation  once  a  week  will  be  no  detriment. 
Growth  is  now  pushing  forth  rapidly,  and  the  blooming  shoots  will  begin  to 
elongate  toward  the  bud  formation.  These  should  be  cut  back  as  soon  as  the 

242 


Calendar  of  Operations 

bud  is  well  developed.  The  carnation  field  should  be  gone  over  each  week 
and  all  shoots  showing  bud  development  pinched  out.  Do  not  take  off  any 
shoot  that  is  not  well  advanced,  but  leave  it  until  the  next  pinching  time. 
Some  growers  allow  their  plants  to  stand  until  the  buds  are  fully  developed 
and  then  cut  everything  back  hard.  This  is  detrimental,  if  a  continuous  crop 
of  bloom  is  desired,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  flowers  to  come  in 
crops. 

July 

The  hottest  periods  of  the  year  are  apt  to  occur  during  this  month  and 
the  following  one.  All  insect  pests,  especially  thrips  and  red  spider,  will  be 
exceedingly  troublesome  this  month.  In  extreme  hot  weather,  the  plants 
may  be  syringed  every  evening  and  in  the  morning  as  well.  Ventilation 
should  be  kept  on  at  all  times.  Young  stock  upon  the  benches  should  be 
syringed,  and  close  attention  given  to  watering.  The  shoots  should  be 
pinched  back  as  fast  as  they  show  formation  of  flower  buds,  care  being  taken 
not  to  cut  them  back  too  hard.  In  pinching  back  a  shoot,  at  least  three  strong 
joints  should  be  left.  Cultivation  outside,  and  the  hoeing  and  weeding 
of  stock  in  the  field,  should  be  persisted  in.  Follow  up  the  pinching  back  of 
stock  in  the  field.  The  bench  soil  should  be  cultivated  wherever  weeds  are 
showing,  or  the  surface  soil  has  become  encrusted.  Plants  for  blooming  in 
pots  should  all  be  outdoors,  and  will  now  be  growing  rapidly.  When  the  pots 
have  become  well  filled  with  roots,  water  must  be  administered  liberally,  but 
after  shifting,  and  before  the  roots  have  taken  possession  of  the  new  soil, 
watering  must  be  carefully  done.  If  too  much  water  is  given  at  this  period, 
the  new  soil  may  become  soured  and  the  plants  will  not  make  as  good  growth 
as  otherwise.  All  old  flowering  plants  remaining  inside  should  now  be 
thrown  out  as  rapidly  as  the  houses  are  needed.  As  soon  as  it  has  been  de- 
cided to  stop  the  care  of  a  bench  of  carnations,  the  plants  should  be  thrown 
out  at  once  and  burned,  as  it  will  not  pay  to  allow  the  plants  to  stand  upon  the 
benches  and  dry  up,  for  insects  will  leave  such  plants  and  go  to  adjoining 
growing  stock,  to  get  food.  The  houses  should  now  be  cleared  out,  fumi- 
gated and  refilled,  and  prepared  for  planting  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Late 
varieties,  such  as  Prosperity,  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson  and  Governor  Roose- 
velt, should  all  be  benched  not  later  than  the  2Oth  to  25th  of  this  month. 
Houses  should  be  shaded  lightly  where  any  plants  are  growing.  This  shad- 
ing, if  not  too  heavy,  may  be  kept  on  until  October,  at  which  time  it  should  be 
gradually  removed.  Continue  the  pinching  back  of  all  plants,  both  in  the 
field  and  in  the  houses.  Follow  up  cultivation,  both  in  the  field  and  on  the 
benches,  vigorously. 

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Calendar  of   Operations 
August 

Cleaning  out  and  filling  and  planting  the  houses  should  be  carried  on 
with  energy,  as  it  is  now  desirable  to  have  all  the  plants  benched  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  Fumigation  for  the  destruction  of  thrips  and  green  fly  must  be 
practiced  at  every  favorable  opportunity.  Select  the  coolest  nights  for  fumi- 
gating. The  destruction  of  thrips  must  be  followed  up  persistently.  It  is 
a  very  difficult  insect  to  reach  by  any  remedial  agent,  as  the  pest  burrows 
down  into  the  flower  buds  where  it  is  safe  from  the  fumes  of  the  various 
gases  used  to  destroy  insects.  Frequently  the  thrips  will  destroy  the  flower  in 
the  bud  state  before  any  color  can  be  seen.  Continue  the  stopping  of  early 
blooming  sorts  of  carnations,  but  the  late  blooming  varieties  should  not  be 
cut  back  after  the  1st  of  August.  In  the  latitude  of  New  York,  the  bench- 
ing of  all  carnations  should  be  finished  by  the  2Oth  of  August.  Cultivation 
of  the  carnation  fields  should  be  energetically  continued. 

September 

There  is  but  little  variation  in  the  care  of  carnations  in  the  months  of 
September  and  August.  Plants  that  were  benched  by  the  middle  of  July 
will  be  pushing  forward  their  blooming  shoots.  All  of  these  which  indicate 
a  short-stemmed  flower,  or  show  any  signs  of  weakness,  should  be  cut  back ; 
only  the  strong,  vigorous  shoots  should  be  allowed  to  develop.  Continue 
field  cultivation,  and  cultivation  on  the  benches.  Follow  up  fumigation  for 
insects.  Look  carefully  after  the  watering  in  dark  weather,  especially^  of 
plants  recently  benched.  Do  not  give  any  artificial  fertilizer,  unless  the  plants 
are  thoroughly  established  and  the  benches  filled  with  roots,  and  there  is  some 
indication  of  slackening  in  growth;  then  commence  with  a  mulching  of 
sheep  manure,  or  a  dressing  of  soot,  or  a  combination  of  the  two.  Place  wires 
wherever  the  plants  have  straightened  up,  and  be  sure  to  keep  the  wiring  well 
in  hand,  doing  the  work  at  the  proper  time. 

October 

The  earlier  planted  varieties  will  now  be  coming  into  bloom.  As  fast  as 
the  shoots  begin  to  elongate  the  first  wires  should  be  placed,  and  the  upper 
wiring  of  the  benches  should  be  continued  as  soon  as  the  foremost  buds 
show  well  above  (say,  four  or  five  inches)  the  wires  last  placed.  Never  leave 
the  wiring  of  benches  until  the  stems  have  grown  up  and  fallen  down. 
Always  keep  the  wiring  well  ahead  of  the  growth  of  the  plants.  Shading 
should  be  gradually  removed.  Do  not  apply  any  fire  heat,  unless  the  night 
temperature  falls  below  45  degrees,  and  then  the  heat  should  be  turned  on 

244 


Calendar   of   Operations 

but  a  short  period  of  time.  An  exception  to  this  would  be  in  case  of  a  cold 
rain  storm,  following  immediately  upon  a  heavy  watering  or  syringing. 
In  such  a  case,  the  ventilators,  both  on  the  sides  and  in  the  roof,  should  be 
left  open  a  few  inches,  and  the  heat  should  be  turned  on  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  to  dry  off  the  foliage  and  prevent  the  plants  being  chilled  or  checked. 
If  the  plants  are  checked  by  chilling  or  overwatering,  they  are  very  liable  to 
be  attacked  by  stem  rot,  rust,  or  some  of  the  carnation  spots.  A  fresh, 
sprightly,  rather  dry  atmosphere  is  at  all  times  better  for  the  carnation  than 
one  that  is  cold  and  damp,  or  hot  and  charged  with  moisture.  The  best 
average  temperature  at  night  is  48  to  50  degrees,  with  a  minimum  of  55 
to  56  degrees  during  the  daytime.  During  this  month  artificial  fertilization 
may  be  commenced,  giving  such  plants  as  show  by  their  vigorous  growth  that 
the  benches  are  well  filled  with  roots  a  light  mulch  of  pulverized  sheep 
manure,  to  which  has  been  added  a  little  soot,  or,  in  lieu  thereof  a  slight 
mulching  of  thoroughly  decomposed  cow  manure,  or  stable  manure.  Chemi- 
cal fertilizers  may  also  be  used,  affording  the  plants  a  watering  with  a  very 
weak  solution,  say,  twice  during  the  month.  I  prefer  the  mulching  of  sheep 
manure  and  soot  at  this  period  of  the  year,  as  all  of  the  material  is  gradually 
dissolved  and  disappears  into  the  soil.  Where  stable  manure  is  used  as  a 
mulch,  it  must  in  the  end  be  raked  off.  This  not  only  entails  labor,  but  dis- 
turbs and  destroys  the  feeding  roots  which  have  pushed  towards  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  and  frequently  into  the  mulch.  Stable  manure  is  better  than  no 
mulch  at  all,  but  the  dressing  should  be  a  light  one. 

November 

More  artificial  heat  will  be  needed  this  month,  but  abundant  ventilation 
must  be  daily  provided.  Upon  dark,  cloudy  days,  when  dense  fogs  surround 
the  greenhouses,  a  little  heat  should  be  kept  on  and  the  ventilators  opened 
slightly  at  the  top  and  on  the  sides,  in  order  to  provide  a  fresh  circulation 
of  air.  The  carnation  is  a  fresh  air  loving  plant,  and  the  houses  in  which 
it  is  grown  should  be  abundantly  ventilated  at  all  possible  times.  Be  increas- 
ingly careful  about  watering,  and  do  not  water  the  benches  until  the  soil  is 
rather  on  the  dry  side.  The  same  care  should  be  exercised  in  watering 
plants  in  pots.  Water  about  the  temperature  of  the  house  is  preferred  by 
most  growers.  Avoid  syringing  the  walks,  or  dashing  water  about  the 
houses,  excepting  on  warm,  bright  days.  Disbudding  should  be  followed 
up,  and  the  young  buds  removed  as  soon  as  they  are  sufficiently  developed 
to  enable  them  to  be  seized  and  taken  out  without  injuring  the  stems.  The 
feeding  of  plants  may  be  continued,  especially  of  those  that  are  in  full  bud. 

245 


Calendar  of  Operations 

All  plant  food  and  mulchings  that  are  to  be  given  during  the  fall  should  be 
finished  up  in  this  month,  as  during  the  month  of  December,  especially  when 
the  days  are  dark  and  cloudy,  little  fertilizer  should  be  afforded. 

December 

This  is  the  most  critical  month  for  the  carnation  grower,  as  it  is  the 
natural  resting  period  of  the  carnation.  The  days  are  short,  much  of  the 
weather  is  cloudy  and  dark,  and  great  care  is  needed  in  ventilating,  heating 
of  the  houses,  and  in  watering.  The  same  care  and  treatment  of  the  carna- 
tion houses  recommended  for  November  applies  to  December.  A  cold,  damp 
atmosphere  is  the  worst  enemy  of  flowering  plants,  and  should  be  avoided  at 
all  times.  A  moderately  warm,  fresh  buoyant  atmosphere,  supplied  with 
fresh  air  whenever  it  is  possible  to  admit  it,  is  always  best  for  the  carna- 
tion. "Ventilation,  even  if  but  a  crack  can  be  allowed,"  should  be  the 
watchword.  Remember,  that  on  bright,  sunny  days  the  temperature  may  run 
comparatively  high.  From  65  to  70  degrees  might  be  considered  the  normal 
temperature  for  carnations  upon  bright  days,  but  in  dark,  cloudy  weather,  56 
to  65  degrees  is  all  that  should  be  allowed.  The  cooler  the  temperature  can 
be  kept  and  active  growth  maintained,  the  better  it  is  for  the  plants.  The 
grower  will  get  larger  and  more  perfect  flowers,  with  stronger  stems;  the 
blooms  will  be  brighter  in  color,  and  the  constitution  and  vigor  of  the  plants 
will  be  better  maintained  by  cool  treatment,  than  by  higher,  or  forced,  tem- 
peratures maintained  by  artificial  heat. 


246 


CHAPTER   XXV 

The  American   Carnation  Society 

SHORTLY  after  the  writer  engaged  in  the  culture  of  carnations  at  East 
Moriches,  L.  L,  he  became  impressed  with  the  idea  that  much  more 
could  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of  improving  the  Divine  Flower 
if  an  association  of  those  most  interested  in  its  culture  could  be  organized. 
With  this  end  in  view,  correspondence  was  opened  with  a  number  of  florists 
who  were  at  that  time  paying  more  than  usual  attention  to  the  carnation. 
These  letters  met  with  favorable  responses  from  almost  every  individual 
addressed,  the  result  being  the  publication  in  the  existing  florists'  trade 
papers  of  the  following 

CALL. 

To  American  Carnation  Growers:  You  are  co/dially  invited  to  attend  a  meeting 
to  be  held  in  Horticultural  Hall,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  on  Thursday,  October  15,  1891,  at 
2.00  p.  m.,  for  the  purpose  of  organizing  a  Society  of  American  Carnation  Growers. 

"In  order  to  make  this  Society  as  comprehensive  as  possible,  and  to  insure  the 
greatest  benefit  to  growers,  it  is  essential  that  all  should  become  members. 

"All  those  who  are  unable  to  attend  will  kindly  send  their  names  for  enrollment. 
The  object  of  this  Society  will  be  to  materially  benefit  carnation  growers,  and  to  ad- 
vance the  popularity  of  the  Divine  Flower  so  that  it  shall  stand  second  to  none.  Let  us 
all  step  to  the  front  and  put  our  shoulders  to  the  wheel. 

C.  W.  WARD,  C.  J.  PENNOCK,  GEO.  W.  LOVE, 

GEO.  CREIGHTON,  GEO.  HANCOCK,  JOHN  McGowAN, 

C.  E.  ALLEN,  A.  M.  HERE,  ALEX.  McBRiDE, 

WM.  SWAYNE,  EDWARD  SWAYNE,  H.  E.  CHITTY, 

R.  T.  LOMBARD,  E.  B.  JENNINGS,  ISAAC  LARKIN, 

FRED  SCHNEIDER,  CHAS.  T.  STARR,  EDWIN  LONSDALE, 

W.  R.  SHELMIRE." 

[NOTE. — It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  only  nine  of  those  who  joined 
in  this  call  are  now  growing  carnations  as  a  specialty.  Three  are  dead,  and 
seven  have  entered  other  occupations.] 

The  proposition  to  organize  this  Society  met  with  some  criticism  on 
the  part  of  a  few  members  of  The  Society  of  American  Florists,  who  at  that 
time  probably  imagined  that  the  organization  of  another  association  com- 
posed of  men  interested  in  a  special  branch  of  floriculture  might  interfere 

247 


The  American  Carnation  Society 

in  some  manner  with  the  future  of  The  Society  of  American  Florists.  How- 
ever, the  futility  of  this  criticism  was  soon  seen,  and  active  opposition  to 
the  plan  ceased. 

This  call  brought  together  an  assemblage  comprised  of  fifty  enthusi- 
asts, and  The  American  Carnation  Society  was  duly  organized.  The  initial 
meeting  was  adjourned  to  November  4,  1891,  when  the  promoters  reas- 
sembled at  the  St.  James  Hotel,  in  New  York  City,  and  the  Society  was 
launched  upon  a  very  substantial  basis,  and  its  real  work  begun.  Papers 
were  there  read  covering  the  subjects  of  Carnation  Soils,  The  Production 
of  Seedlings,  Greenhouse  Construction  for  Carnation  Culture,  Cost  of  Pro- 
ducing Carnation  Cuttings,  and  Business  Methods.  Since  that  date  eleven 
annual  meetings  have  been  held,  the  first  taking  place  at  Buffalo,  on  Febru- 
ary 16,  1892;  the  second  at  Pittsburg,  February  21-22,  1893;  third  at  Indi- 
anapolis, February  20-21,  1894;  fourth  at  Boston,  February  18-19,  1895; 
fifth  at  New  York,  February  20-21,  1896;  sixth  at  Cincinnati,  February 
18-19,  1897;  seventh  at  Chicago,  February  17-18,  1898;  eighth  at  Phila- 
delphia, February  16-17,  1899;  ninth  at  Buffalo,  February  15-16,  1900; 
tenth  at  Baltimore,  February  21-22,  1901 ;  and  the  eleventh  at  Indianapolis, 
February  19-20,  1902.  The  twelfth  annual  meeting  was  held  in  the  city 
of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  February  19-20,  1903. 

Starting  with  fifty  members,  the  Society  now  has  a  membership  of 
approximately  four  hundred.  It  has  accomplished  a  vast  amount  of  good 
work,  and  to  its  efforts  may  be  attributed  a  large  measure  of  the  popular 
favor  with  which  the  carnation  is  to-day  regarded  by  the  American  people. 

Beginning  with  the  first  exhibition  of  flowers  given  in  connection  with 
the  second  annual  meeting  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  February,  1892,  where 
perhaps  two  or  three  thousand  blooms  were  displayed,  the  importance  of 
the  annual  exhibitions  held  by  the  Society  has  steadily  increased  each  year, 
until  these  magnificent  yearly  displays  of  carnations  comprise  thousands  of 
blooms,  the  staging  of  the  show  at  Indianapolis  demanding  the  largest  exhi- 
bition hall  afforded  by  that  progressive  city;  while  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn 
the  "annual  display  for  1903  required  its  two  largest  exhibition  halls. 

The  American  Carnation  Society  has  devoted  itself  strictly  to  the  exploit- 
ation of  the  carnation,  and  its  work  has  been  carried  on  with  an  enthusi- 
asm on  the  part  of  its  members  born  of  the  knowledge  that  the  efforts  put 
forth  were  along  the  right  lines,  and,  therefore,  bound  to  succeed.  Thus 
far  the  Society  has  formed  no  entangling  alliances,  nor  has  it  sought  to 
impede  the  growth,  or  cripple  the  usefulness,  of  any  other  florists'  organiza- 
tion. Its  membership  acknowledged  at  the  beginning  the  natural  tendency 

248 


The  American   Carnation  Society 

of  the  times  toward  horticultural  organization,  and,  with  a  broad  view  of 
the  future,  recognized  that  the  larger  the  number  of  special  societies  com- 
posed of  members  thoroughly  interested  in  the  work  that  can  be  success- 
fully maintained  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  advancement  of  American  horti- 
culture. 

There  are  those  among  the  floriculturists  of  the  United  States  who 
seem  to  believe  that  all  American  horticultural  organizations  must  be  com- 
bined under  one  head,  and  controlled  by  fixed  influences.  In  support  of  this, 
The  Royal  Horticultural  Society  of  England  has  been  pointed  out  as  an 
example  of  centralized  horticultural  effort.  The  membership  of  The  Ameri- 
can Carnation  Society  has  not  countenanced  this  idea,  but  has  maintained 
its  position  and  its  work,  replying  to  its  critics  by  calling  attention  to  the 
results  achieved,  and  pointing  to  the  fact  that  in  England,  aside  from  The 
Royal  Horticultural  Society,  there  exist  at  the  present  time  not  only  a 
National  Carnation  Society,  but  a  score  of  other  special  florists'  associa- 
tions, that  are  doing  excellent  work.  They  further  cite  the  many  State 
horticultural  societies  existing  in  the  United  States,  and  the  various  pomo- 
logical,  nurserymen's  and  fruit  growers'  organizations  that  are  performing 
a  permanent  and  splendid  service.  That  The  American  Carnation  Society, 
after  having  accomplished  the  magnificent  results  which  now  stand  to  its 
credit,  will  persist  in  maintaining  its  status,  and  continuing  its  good  work, 
goes  without  saying.  Through  the  efforts  of  its  members  a  magnificent 
commercial  business  has  been  built  up;  a  knowledge  of  the  American  car- 
nation has  been  disseminated  throughout  the  world,  and  a  love  of  the  flower 
awakened  thereby  that  could  have  been  accomplished  in  so  short  a  period 
of  time  by  no  other  means ;  and  I  am  certain  that  every  lover  of  the  carna- 
tion will  join  with  an  "All  Hail  to  the  Carnation!  Hail  to  The  Carnation 
Society !  May  their  usefulness  never  cease,  nor  their  popularity  ever  wane !" 

At  each  of  the  Society's  annual  meetings  essays  upon  various  subjects 
pertaining  particularly  to  carnation  culture  have  been  read.  Among  the 
subjects  covered  by  these  essays  are  the  following: 

Soils. 

The  Production  of  New  Seedlings. 

Greenhouse  Construction  for  Carnation  Culture. 

Cost  of  Producing  Carnation  Cuttings. 

Business  Methods. 

Do  Varieties  Run  Out? 

Carnations  in  the  Retail  Trade. 

Carnation  Rust;  a  New  and  Destructive  Disease. 

Carnations  in  Southern  California. 


The  American   Carnation  Society 

The  Carnation  as  it  is  grown  in  Europe. 

John  Thorpe's  Ideal  Carnation. 

Sports  and  Variations. 

Some  Types  and  Tendencies  in  the  Carnation. 

Pot  Culture  of  Carnations. 

A  Retailer's  Views. 

Growing  New  Varieties  of  Carnations. 

Diseases  of  the  Carnation,  other  than  Rust. 

Carnation  Diseases. 

Carnation  Enemies  and  Supposed  Remedies. 

Discrimination  of  Diseases  without  the  use  of  the  Microscope. 

New  Carnations  and  their  Introduction  into  Commerce. 

Carnations  for  Cut  Flowers. 

Desirable  Varieties  and  How  they  May  Be  Improved. 

Carnations  in  Canada. 

A  Nematode  Disease  of  the  Carnation. 

Carnations  from  Cutting  to  Field. 

The  Cultivation  of  Carnation  Plants  for  Winter  Flowering. 

Care  of  Carnations  in  Winter. 

Carnations  That  I  Have  Seen. 

How  to  Distinguish  Fungous  Diseases  of  Carnations. 

The  Future  of  our  Floricultural  Societies. 

What  are  the  effects  of  Hybridization  on  Carnations? 

Abnormal  Carnation  Flowers. 

Some  Recent  Experiments  on  the  Treatment  of  Rust. 

Chemical  Fertilizers. 

Carnation  Culture  in  Maryland. 

Introduction  of  New  Varieties  and  Their  Commercial  Value. 

The  Carnation  from  the  Commission  Man's  Standpoint. 

Moisture  the  Plant's  Greatest  Requirement. 

In-door  Grown  Carnations. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. 

Sub-watering  and  Dry  Air. 

Growing  Carnations  under  Glass  all  Summer. 

Summer  Blooming  Varieties  Out-of-doors. 

Cutting  Prices. 

The  Ideal  Form  of  Carnation. 

Insects  Infesting  Carnations. 

The  Carnation  in  Health  and  Disease. 

The  compiled  annual  reports  of  The  American  Carnation  Society,  cov- 
ering its  proceedings  during  the  first  ten  years  of  its  existence,  form  one 
of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  American  floricultural  literature.  These 
reports  contain  a  complete  record  of  the  Society's  proceedings,  besides  a  full 
list  of  varieties  that  were  known  to  have  been  introduced  and  cultivated 
prior  to  and  including  the  year  1899. 

250 


The  American   Carnation  Society 

The  example  set  by  the  formation  of  The  American  Carnation  Society 
has  been  followed  by  the  establishment  of  several  other  organizations,  notably 
The  American  Rose  Society,  The  American  Dahlia  Society,  and  The  Ameri- 
can Peony  Society.  Up  to  November  of  the  year  1902  none  of  these  socie- 
ties seems  to  have  possessed  the  vigor  shown  by  The  American  Carnation 
Society ;  but  at  the  above-mentioned  time  The  Chrysanthemum  Society  of 
America,  which  was  established  in  1889,  entered  upon  a  new  departure  by 
holding  its  annual  meeting  in  connection  with  the  yearly  chrysanthemum 
show  at  Chicago,  and  it  may  be  considered  that  The  Chrysanthemum  Society 
of  America  is  now  fairly  committed  to  a  plan  practically  similar  to  that 
which  has  governed  the  annual  meetings  of  The  American  Carnation 
Society. 

The  objections  to  the  organization  of  special  societies,  upon  the  ground 
that  they  would  interfere  with  the  welfare  of  The  Society  of  American 
Florists,  are  well  met  by  the  fact  that  the  latter  Society  has  thrived  and 
gained  large  acquisitions  to  its  membership,  notwithstanding  the  growth 
of  the  Carnation,  Chrysanthemum,  Rose,  and  other  special  societies;  and 
it  may  be  well  said  that  if  England,  with  forty  millions  of  people,  supports 
not  only  The  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  but  a  score  of  other  special  flor- 
ists' associations,  is  there  any  reason  why  in  the  United  States,  with  a  popu- 
lation fully  double  that  of  England,  and  soon  to  be  more  than  four  times 
as  large,  there  should  not  be  able  to  exist  not  only  The  Society  of  Ameri- 
can Florists,  but  as  many  other  special  horticultural  organizations  as  thrive 
in  England  to-day? 

The  American  Carnation  Society  is  organized  upon  broad  and  liberal 
lines.  It  bars  no  one  from  the  benefits  of  its  membership.  All  are  wel- 
come to  its  ranks — the  amateur  as  well  as  the  professional  grower  of  the 
Divine  Flower. 

American   Carnation   Nomenclature 

Compiled  and  Corrected  up  to  February  1,  1899,  by  The  American 

Carnation  Society 

Abraham  Lincoln  Agnes    Shellem  Alhambra 

Abundance  Agnes  Snow  Al.  Mailaiken 

A.  C.  Fitzpatrick  Alaska  Alice 

Acquisition  Albany  Amado 

Ada  Alba  Perfecta  Amazon 

Adelaide  Kresken  Alba  Superba  America 

Adelaide  Alegatiere  American  Banner 

Admiral   Dewey  Alexander  American  Flag 

251 


The  American   Carnation  Society 


American  Florist 
American  Wonder 

A.  M.  Herr 
Amy 

Amy  Phipps 

Andalusia 

Angelus 

Anna  C.  Eastburn 

Anna  H.  Shaw 

Anna  Webb 

Annie  H.  Lonsdale 

Annie  Pixley 

Annie  Wiegand 

Anthony's  Pink 

Argyle 

Armazindy 

Astoria 

Attraction 

Augusta  Rath 

Augusta  Williams 

Aurora 

Avalanche 

Avondale 

Azalea 

B.  A.  Elliott 
Baltic 
Baltimore 
Banner 

Bayard  Taylor 
Beatrice 
Beatrice  White 
Beauty 

Beauty  of  Oxford 
Ben   Halliday 
Ben  Hur 
Bertha  Rath 
Bertha  Soper 
Bertha  Stahl 
Bess 
Bettina 
Bidwell 
Bird-in-Hand 
Black  Knight 
Black  Prince 
Blanche 
Blizzard 
Bohemian  Girl 


Boissy 

Bonibell 

Bonny  Doon 

Bon  Ton 

Boule  de  Neige 

Bouton  d'Or 

Brester 

Bride  of  Erlescourt 

Bridesmaid 

Brower 

Brunnette 

Brussells 

Brutus 

Bryant 

Buster 

Butler 

Buttercup 

Caesar 

C.  J.  Clark 

Calico 

Canada 

Captain  King 

Cardinal 

Cardinalis 

Casa  Blanca 

Catherine  Paul 

Cecilia  Schwencke 

Century 

Cerise  Queen 

Charles  A.  Dana 

Charles  Sumner 

Charles  T.  Starr 

Charmer 

Chastity 

Cherry  Lips 

Cherry  Ripe 

Chester  Pride 

Chicago 

Christmas 

Christina  Dorner 

Chusco 

Citrus 

Clara  Mawer 

Clara  Morris 

Cleopatra 

Clifton 

Clio 


Columbia 

Chincheta 

Conch  Shell 

Constancy 

Cora  Collins 

Corsair 

Couronne  de  la  Vaela 

Creole 

Crimson  Coronet 

Crimson  King 

Crimson  Velvet 

Crimson  Wave 

Crysta 

Crystal 

C.    Schmidt 

Cymbeline 

Daisy 

Daisy  Bell 

Dards 

Darkness 

Dawn 

Daybreak 

Dazzle 

Dean  Hole 

Defender 

DeRoo  Hitting 

Delaware 

Delicate 

Delightful 

Delia  Fox 

Diadem 

Diamond 

Diana 

Dolly  Varden 

Dorinda 

Dorothy 

Dorothy  Mandell 

Dr.  E.  P.  Lawrence 

Dr.  Del  Amo 

Dr.  Lamborn 

Dr.  Patski 

Dr.  Smart 

Dr.  Tevis 

Dr.  Warder 

Du  Marchand 

Duke  of  Orange 

Duke  of  York 


252 


The  American   Carnation  Society 


E.  A.  Wood 
Earlham 
Eastern  Queen 
Eclipse 
Edelweiss 
Edith  Foster 
Edna  Craig 
Edmons 
Edward  Bissell 
Edwardsii 
Edwin  Lonsdale 
Eglantine 
E.  G.  Clark 
E.  G.  Hill 
Eldorado 
Elmont 

Elsie  Furgeson 

Emerson 

Emiline 

Emily  Louise  Taplin 

Emma  Lowry 

Emma  Quintin 

Emma  M.  Thompson 

Emma  Wocher 

Emperor  of  Morocco 

Empress 

Encante 

Ermine 

Esther 

Ethel 

Ethel  Crocker 

Ethel  Ward 

Eulalia 

Euphemia 

Eureka 

Evangeline 

Evanston 

Evelina 

Evening  Star 

E.  V.  Low 

Excelsior 

Exquisite 

Fair  Rosamond 

Fairy  Princess 

Fancy 

Farragut 

Fascination 


Fawn 

Pillow's  New  Red 

Ferdinand  Mangold 

Field  of  Gold 

Firebrand 

Firefly 

Firelight 

Fishkill 

Flame 

Fitzpatrick 

Fleta  Fay  Foster 

Florence  Bevis 

Florence  Eddy 

Florence  Fisher 

Florence  Van  Reyper 

Frank  McGregor 

Freedom 

Fred.  Creighton 

Fred.  Dorner 

Fred.  Johnson 

Gaiety 

Gauntlet 

General  Burnside 

General  Custer 

General  Maceo 

General  Maximo  Gomez 

General  Sherman 

Genesee 

Geneva 

Genevieve  Lord 

George  Thorpe 

George  Washington 

Germania 

Gertrude 

G.  H.  Crane 

Gibbonsii 

Glacier 

Gladys  Ray 

Glorious 

Glory  of  Venice 

Glowing  Coal 

Gold  Coin 

Gold  Finch 

Gold  Nugget 

Golden  Gate 

Golden  Gem 

Golden  State 


Golden  Triumph 

Goldsmith 

Governor  Griggs 

Governor  Markham 

Governor  Russell 

Grace  Battles 

Grace  Bellinger 

Grace  Darling 

Grace  Fardon 

Grace  Runyan 

Grace  Wilder 

Grave's  Seedling 

Grenadine 

Guiding  Star 

Happy  Day 

Harriett 

Harriett  Bradford 

Harriett  Thorpe 

Harrison's  White 

Harry  Palmer 

Hector 

Heintz's  Red 

Heintz's  White 

Helen  Dean 

Helen  Galvin 

Helen  Keller 

Henrietta 

Henrietta  Sargent 

Hesper 

Hiawatha 

Hilda 

Hinsdale 

Holmes 

Hon.  T.  B.  Reed 

Hon.  Wm.  McKinley 

Hoosier 

Hugh  Graham 

lago 

lantha 

Ida  Feder 

Ida  May 

Ida  McKinley 

Ideal 

Immaculate 

Imogene 

Indiana 

Ingleside 


253 


The  American   Carnation  Society 


Innocence 

Intensive 

Invincible 

Iris  Miller 

Isabelle  Hunnewell 

Ivanhoe 

Ivory 

Jack  Frost 

Jacqueminot 

Jahn's  Scarlet 

James  Corbett 

James  Dean 

James  Madison 

James  Perkins 

J.  Gould 

J.  B.  Jacquier 

J.  B.  Kidd 

J.  C.  Ainsworth 

Jean   Sisley 

Jeanne  Morell 

Jeannette 

Jennie  Parker 

Jewell 

J.  J.  Harrison 

John  Carbon 

John  Hinkle 

John  McCullough 

John  Raynor 

John  R.  Renere 

John  Thorpe 

John  Young 

Josephine 

Joseph  Jefferson 

Joseph  Perkins 

Josiah  Eaton 

J.  R.  Freeman 

Jubilee 

Juliet 

Jumbo 

Jupiter 

J.  W.  Wolfskill 

J.  Y.  Murkland 

Kaiser  Wilhelm 

Karto 

Kate 

Kathleen  Pantlind 

Katherine  Storrs 


Katheryne 

Katie  Shaffer 

King  Dianthus 

King  of  the  Crimsons 

Kitty  Clover 

Kohinoor 

La  Belle 

Lady  Chattin 

Lady  Emma 

Lady  Fair 

Lady  Martha 

Lady  Maud 

Lady  Rachel 

La  Favorite 

Lafayette 

Lake  City 

La  Purite 

Lasandria 

Laura 

Laura  Degenhardt 

Laura  E.  Doty 

Laura   Hempstead 

Laura  Vick 

Lawrence  Thompson 

Lela  Underwood 

Lena  Saling 

Leon  Gambetta 

Leslie  Paul 

Letty  Coles 

L'Excellent 

Liberty 

Lieut.  Gov.  Sheehan 

Lillian 

Lily  Dean 

Little  Beauty 

Little  Gem 

Lizzie  McGowan 

L.  L.  Lamborn 

Logan 

Lois  J.  Haettel 

Lonesa 

Longfellow 

Lord  Clyde 

Los  Angeles 

Louise  Porsch 

Louis  Lenoir 

Lowell 


Lucia 

Lucy  Brenner 

Lucy  Singler 

Lulu 

Luna 

Lydia 

Lyone 

Lyon's  White 

Mabel  F.  Gray 

Maiden  Blush 

Magnet 

M.  A.  Hunt 

Majesty 

Manhattan 

Mapledale 

Marian 

Marie 

Marie  Starr 

Marina 

Margaret  Rath 

Mark  Hanna 

Marquise  Lome 

Mars 

Marshall  P.  Wilder 

Martin  Wolfskill 
Marvel 

Mary  A.  Baker 

Mary  Anderson 

Mary  Shepherd 

Mary  A.  Wood 

Mary  Darce 

Maude 

Maude  Adams 

Maud  Dean 

Maud  Granger 

Mayflower 

Mayor  Pingree 

May  Queen 

McConnell 

Melba 

Mephisto 

Meteor 

Minerva's  Pink 

Minnie  Cook 

Miranda 

Miss  Blanche  Payne 

Miss  Donnelly 


254 


The  American   Carnation  Society 


Miss  Joliffe 
Miss  Moore 
Mile.  Carl 
Madame  Chassons 
Mme.  Diaz  Albertini 
Mme.  Cobette 
Mons.   Gambetta 
Moore's  Crimson 
Morello 
Morene 
-Morning  Ray 
Morning  Star 
Motor 

Mrs.  Ada  Lenton 
Mrs.  A.  Rolker 
Mrs.  Ayers 
Mrs.  B.  Harrison 
Mrs.    Carnegie 
Mrs.  Cassel 
Mrs.  Chas.  H.  Duhme 
Mrs.  Chas.  M.  Pick 
Mrs.  Childs 
Mrs.  E.  Hippard 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  Reynolds 
Mrs.  E.  V.  Lawson 
Mrs.  Ferdinand  Mangold 
Mrs.  Fisher 
Mrs.  Frances  Joost 
Mrs.  Garfield 
Mrs.  H.  C.  Frick 
Mrs.  Harris 
Mrs.  Harrison 
Mrs.  Henry  M.  Stanley 
Mrs.  Jas.  Dean 
Mrs.  J.  B.  Perkins 
Mrs.  John  W.   Colflesh 
Mrs.  Keene 
Mrs.  Lemuel  Fawcett 
Mrs.  L.  Gay 
Mrs.  Lonsdale 
Mrs.  Mailander 
Mrs.  H.  Hallock  Foote 
Mrs.  McBurney 
Mrs.   Pauline  Gussman 
Mrs.  Robert  Hitt 
Mrs.  Skinner 
Mrs.  S.  M.  Inman 


Mrs.  Sprout 

Mrs.  T.  B.  Reed 

Mrs.  Titus 

Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson 

Mrs.  Wm.  McKinley 

Myrtle 

Nancy  Hanks 

Nellie  Lewis 

Nellie  Nolan 

Nellie  St.  Clair 

Nelly  Ely 

Netherwood 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

Nita  Berringer 

Nivea 

Northern  Light 

Oddity 

Ohio 

Old  Gold 

Old  Rose 

Olympia 

Oneida 

Oona 

Ophelia 

Orange   Blossom 

Orient 

Othello 

Outcast 

Pacific 

Painted  Lady 

Paloma 

Panchita 

Paradise 

Pat  O'Mara 

Patti 

Paxton 

Peachblow  Coronet 

Pearl 

Pearl  White 

Peerless 

Peru 

Peter  Henderson 

Petunia 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia  Variegated 

Pikes  Peak 


Pilgrim 

Pink  Beauty 

Pink  of  Perfection 

Poe 

Pomona 

Portia 

Potomac 

Preciosa 

President  Degraw 

President  Garfield 

Pride  of  Boston 

Pride  of  Essex 

Pride  of  Kennett 

Pride  of  Penhurst 

Princess 

Princess  Bonnie 

Princess  Louise 

Progress 

Psyche 

Purdue 

Puritan 

Purple  Beauty 

Purple  Crown 

Purple  King 

Purpurea 

Quaker  City 

Queen  of  the  Whites 

Queens 

Queen  of  the  West 

Queens'  Scarlet 

Ramona 

Rebecca 

Red  Cross 

Red  Jacket 

Red  Wave 

Richmond 

Robert  Craig 

Robin  Hood 

Rob  Roy 

Roi  des  Violets 

Romance 

Rosalie 

Rosalind 

Rosa  Pizer 

Rose  Hill 

Rosemary 

Rose  Queen 


255 


The  American   Carnation  Society 


Rosy  Morn 

R.  R.  Parker 

Ruby 

Ruth 

Ruth  Churchill 

Saginaw 

Salmon  Queen 

Sambo 

Sam  Gabriel 

Samson 

Sandusky 

San  Mateo 

Saturn 

Scallen 

Scarlet  Gem 

Scarlet  King 

Scarlet   Queen 

Scarlet  Ray 

Scarlet  Wave 

Scribners 

Secaucus 

Sea  Foam 

Sea  Gull 

Sears 

Sea  Shell 

Seawan 

Sebec 

Secretary  Elaine 

Secretary  Hunt 

Secretary  James 

Secretary  Kirkwood 

Secretary  Lincoln 

Secretary  McVeagh 

Secretary  Windom 

Seneca  Chief 

Senator  McPherson 

Sensational 

Sentinel 

Servia 

Shasta 

Shell  Flower 

Silver  Ball 

Silver  Lake 

Silver  Spray 

Silver  Star 

Silver  Queen 

Sirius 


Small 

Snowball 

Snow  Bird 

Snow  Crest 

Snowden 

Snow  Drift 

Snow  Flake 

Snow  Queen 

Snow  White 

Souriza 

Spartan 

Sport 

Springfield 

S.  P.  Rees 

S.  S.  Pennock 
Starlight 

Star  of  the  West 

Storm  King 

Storm  Queen 

Stuart 

Striped  Unique 

Sunshine 

Sweetbrier 

Tecumseh 

The  Bride 

The  Grout 

The  Maine 

The  Marquis 

Thomas  Caird 

Thorley 

T.  H.  Spaulding 

Trilby 

Triumph 

Twilight 

Uncle  John 

Uncle  Sam 

Uncle  Walter 

Unique 

Utica 

Van  Houtte 

Van  Leeuwen 

Variegated  La  Belle 

Variegated  La  Purite 

Venus 

Vesuvius 

Vesper 

Vice-President  G.  A.  Hobart 


Vice-Admiral  Schley 

Victor 

Victoria 

Village  Maid 

Villisca 

Virginalis 

Vixen 

Volunteer 

Vulcan 

Wabash 

Wanderer 

Waneta 

Washington 

Waverly 

W.  D.  Sloan 

West  End 

Western  Pride 

W.  H.  Brower 

Whipper-in 

White  Beauty 

White  Cap 

White  Cloud 

White  Coronet 

White  Daybreak 

White  Dove 

White  Gem 

White  Grace  Wilder 

White   La    Purite 

White  Queen 

White  Wings 

Whittier 

Wide-Awake 

Wilhelm 

Wm.  E.  Rowland 

Wm.  F.  Dreer 

Wm.  I.  Burke 

Wm.    Pierce 

Wm.  Scott 

Wm.    Swayne 

Winifred 

W.  W.  Coles 

Yellow  Jack 

Yellok  Jacket 

Yellow  Queen 

Young  America 

Zebra 


256 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

Carnation    Culture 

In  Different  Geographical  Localities  on  the  North  American  Continent, 
With  Biographical  Sketches  of  the  Writers 


Carnation  Culture  in  Lafayette,  Ind. 

BY  FREDERICK  DORNER 

Space  will  not  permit  me  to  go  into  cultural  details,  so  I  will  only 
touch  upon  the  main  points.  I  believe  I  can  do  this  more  comprehensively 
by  outlining  the  manner  in  which  these  are  observed  at  our  place. 

Our  soil  is  a  loam,  of  a  rather  light  texture — partly  sandy  knolls,  and 
heavier,  lower  ground.  For  fertilizers  we  use  stable  manure,  wood  ashes 
and  bone  meal. 

On  the  light,  sandy  soil  we  grow  the  finest  plants.  There  we  are  able 
to  retain  the  moisture  much  longer,  during  dry  weather,  by  thorough  culti- 
vation ;  and  heavy  rains  drain  off  much  quicker.  The  plants  also  lift  with 
a  large  bunch  of  fine  roots. 

For  bench  soil  we  select,  in  the  fall,  a  piece  of  the  heavier  loam,  but 
would  prefer  a  piece  of  sod-soil;  manure  it  well  with  stable  manure,  wood 
ashes  and  bone  meal,  and  plough  it  well  under.  Early  in  the  spring  we  repeat 
the  dose,  plough  again,  and  after  five  or  six  weeks  apply  some  lime.  We 
plough  this  under,  and  repeat  the  ploughing  two  or  three  times  during  the 
summer.  Great  care  is  exercised  not  to  work  this  ground  while  wet. 

We  have  only  one  soil,  and  one  general  treatment  for  all  the  varieties 
we  grow — seedlings  and  standard  sorts  alike.  At  one  time  we  thought 
to  strengthen  our  soil  by  adding  clay  on  the  benches,  but  secured  much 
more  benefit  from  more  lime  and  bone.  We  find  it  of  great  importance 
to  have  all  manures  put  into  the  soil  in  the  fall  and  the  following  spring, 
before  the  soil  is  used,  so  that  the  manures  may  become  fully  decomposed 
and  incorporated.  Plants  will  take  hold  much  quicker  in  such  soil  than 

257  17 


Carnation  Culture  in  Lafayette,  Indiana 

when  manures  are  intermixed  on  the  bench,  though  these  manures  may  be 
as  well  decomposed  as  is  possible. 

Raised  benches,  with  five  inches  of  soil,  are  the  rule  with  us. 

After  the  plants  are  well  established  we  apply  a  light  mulch  of  well- 
rotted  cow  manure  and  light  soil.  We  do  this  more  to  keep  an  even  mois- 
ture all  through  the  bench  than  to  enrich  the  soil. 

We  use  liquid  manures,  much  diluted,  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  able  to 
assimilate  the  extra  food,  and  increase  the  applications  as  the  plants  may 
demand  it. 

From  the  time  the  plants  are  established  we  only  syringe  if  red  spider 
should  appear. 

All  the  water  is  applied  underneath,  and  is  freely  given  when  needed, 
so  as  to  saturate  the  soil  to  the  bottom.  Sub-watering  we  consider  advan- 
tageous, but  for  the  average  grower  it  will  hardly  justify  the  extra  expense 
in  building  the  benches. 

The  temperature  we  maintain  is  from  55  to  60  degrees  in  the  evening, 
to  50  degrees  toward  morning.  During  the  daytime,  as  soon  as  the  tem- 
perature reaches  60  degrees,  the  ventilators  are  opened. 

Plants  are  staked  as  soon  as  possible,  to  insure  a  straight  growth  from 
the  beginning.  We  use  the  Model  Support,  and  in  place  of  the  extension 
employ  wire  lengthwise,  and  twine  across  the  benches. 

A  house  20  x  100  feet  is  used  exclusively  for  propagation.  The  benches 
have  brick  bottoms,  and  are  partially  arranged  for  sub-watering.  The  sand 
is  a  medium-grained,  sharp  pit-sand.  The  benches  are  filled  to  a  depth  of 
three  inches,  and  well  packed,  and  the  sand  is  renewed  for  each  new  lot  of 
cuttings. 

Wherever  practicable,  or  the  stock  is  large  enough,  the  culture  for  cut- 
tings and  flowers  is  divided.  The  only  difference  in  the  treatment  of  stock 
reserved  for  cuttings  is  that  the  plants  are  grown  on  separate  benches,  and 
are  not  allowed  to  bloom.  In  this  way  we  get  more  cuttings,  and  in  my 
experience  these  are  of  a  better  quality  than  others  taken  from  the  flower- 
ing plants. 

Cuttings  are  either  picked  out  of  the  axil  of  the  leaf,  or  are  cut  at  the 
joint.  In  either  case  the  cutting  is  trimmed,  and  great  care  observed  so 
that  the  heel  has  a  smooth  cut,  or  break,  and  that  no  bare  fiber  projects 
beneath  the  cut. 

All  stock  for  our  own  use  is  potted  up  as  soon  as  rooted,  and  placed  in 
a  light,  but  cool,  house,  being  transferred  to  the  field  as  early  as  the  weather 

258 


Carnation  Culture  in  Lafayette,  Indiana 

will  permit.  Cultivation  is  closely  attended  to,  and  the  ground  is  never 
permitted  to  become  baked  and  crusty.  This  is  the  only  way  to  be  pre- 
pared for  a  dry  spell,  and  is  much  more  beneficial  to  the  plants  than  resort- 
ing to  watering. 

Topping  is  commenced  as  soon  as  the  plants  attain  a  height  of  five  or 
six  inches.  A  young  shoot,  topped  in  time,  will  break  much  quicker  than 
one  allowed  to  form  a  flower  bud. 

We  commence  planting  in  the  house  by  the  ist  of  August.  In  our 
section  of  the  country,  with  too  early  planting,  we  have  to  fight  red  spider; 
and  in  exterminating  this  pest,  by  excessive  syringing,  we  invite  fungous 
diseases. 

FREDERICK   DORNER 

Frederick  Dorner  of  Lafayette,  Indiana,  was  born  at  Schiltack,  situated  in  one  of 
the  valleys  of  the  Black  Forest  Mountains  in  Baden,  Germany,  on  November  29,  1837. 
^^^^^^_^^^_^_^__^^^^^^^___  There  he  attended  the  common  schools  and 

received  a  fair,  practical  education.  At  the 
age  of  seventeen  he  emigrated  to  America, 
landing  in  New  York  on  May  7,  1855,  going 
direct  to  Lafayette,  Indiana,  where  an  older 
brother  resided.  His  occupation  in  the  early 
part  of  his  residence  there  was  varied. 
Naturally  fond  of  flowers,  he  concluded  to 
follow  their  culture,  and  found  employment 
with  a  Mr.  Loyd,  one  of  the  pioneer  florists 
and  gardeners  of  Indiana,  who  was  at  that 
time  supplying  the  Chicago  and  Indianapolis 
markets.  Mr.  Dorner  remained  there  but  a 
short  time,  fever  and  ague  attacking  him  and 
compelling  him  to  relinquish  his  situation. 

Fifteen  years  were  subsequently  devoted  to 
farming,  when  he  again  returned  to  his  favor- 
ite occupation  in  1870,  renting  a  place  to  grow 
vegetables.  Attached  to  this  was  a  small 
greenhouse  for  the  cultivation  of  pot  plants. 
This  location  he  left,  and  rented  the  estab- 
lishment where  he  had  first  found  employ- 
ment. Here  he  erected  three  small  green- 
houses, and  cultivated  flowers,  vegetables 
and  small  fruits. 

From  that  period  dates  the  beginning  of  his  present  establishment.  His  business 
gradually  increased,  and  in  1889  it  received  a  new  impetus,  when  Mr.  Dorner  drifted 
into  the  growing  of  seedling  carnations,  and  in  1890,  when  he  moved  into  his  present 
place. 


FREDERICK  DORXER 


259 


Carnation  Culture   in  Massachusetts 

The  present  firm,  F.  Dorner  &  Sons  Co.,  has  been  incorporated  as  a  stock  con- 
cern, and  consists  of  Mr.  Dorner  himself,  and  his  five  elder  children — two  sons,  Fred 
E.  and  Theodore  A.,  and  three  daughters,  Emily,  Mrs.  Anna  D.  Hudson,  and  Mrs. 
Emma  D.  Riddle.  All  are  actually  engaged  in  the  business,  excepting  the  last  named. 

Mr.  Dorner's  greatest  achievement  so  far  has  been  the  variety  Fiancee.  It  is 
considered  the  largest  perfect  carnation  to  date,  for  the  stock  of  which  it  is  reported 
he  has  received  $15,000  from  The  Chicago  Carnation  Co.,  of  Joliet,  111. 


Carnation  Culture  in  Massachusetts 

BY  PETER   FISHER 

Carnation  culture  of  to-day  differs  so  radically  from  the  methods  pur- 
sued ten  years  ago,  and,  no  doubt,  from  those  that  will  prevail  five  years 
hence,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult,  and  almost  impossible,  to  state  any  spe- 
cific line  of  treatment,  as  one  must  be  largely  governed  by  the  requirements 
of  the  special  varieties  of  the  times.  It  will  be  found  that  some  sorts  require 
culture  radically  different  from  others  to  develop  the  points  of  excellence 
they  may  possess ;  and  it  is  unwise  to  condemn  a  variety  because  it  may  not 
succeed  in  some  localities,  as  the  wide  variation  of  soils  has  much  to  do  with 
many  failures  often  charged  to  the  variety  denounced  as  worthless.  Always 
remember,  if  the  originator  can  grow  a  variety  sucessfully  others  can, 
when  its  special  requirements  are  understood.  Simply  because  a  variety 
may  not  be  very  early,  as  regards  season,  that  does  not,  by  any  means,  denote 
it  is  worthless  commercially.  For  instance,  allowing  pure  white  to  be,  all 
around,  the  most  valuable  color,  it  will  be  found  that  an  extremely  early 
sort  often  gets  partially  off  crop  toward  Christmas  and  the  dull,  short  days 
of  winter;  when,  by  having  one  of  the  same  color  which  gives  a  succession 
of  blooms,  as  to  season,  coming  in  with  its  first  crop,  say,  during  Novem- 
ber and  early  December,  it  will  bridge  over  the  defective  season  of  the  early 
variety,  and  so  afford  a  continuance  of  first-quality  flowers. 

The  selection  of  cuttings  is  of  the  first  importance,  and  great  care  should 
be  exercised  that  they  are  taken  from  the  flowering  stems  of  plants  that 
are  in  robust  health,  and  from  varieties  in  colors  commercially  valuable. 
Late-blooming  sorts  should  be  propagated  as  early  as  the  first  week  in  Janu- 
ary, while  early  varieties  can  be  successfully  grown  from  cuttings  taken  the 
latter  part  of  March.  A  good  average  season  in  which  to  select  the  cuttings 
is  from  February  15  to  March  15,  providing  they  can  be  obtained  in  num- 
bers sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  grower;  otherwise,  judgment  must  be 

260 


Carnation  Culture  in  Massachusetts 

used,  as  one  cannot  get  a  quantity  of  blooms  from  late  struck  stock.    Better 
be  on  the  early  side. 

A  well-ripened  cutting  is  preferable,  and  a  good  guide  to  such  is  to 
select  them  from  flowering  stems  with  fully-developed  buds,  and  just  showing 
color ;  or  with  open  flowers.  Usually  the  first  growth  is  useless,  being  spind- 
ling at  the  base,  and  inclined  to  run  to  bloom.  The  second  and  third  growths 
are  more  stocky,  and  make  good  plants ;  but  always  try  to  leave  one  good 
growth  on  the  flowering  stem  as  a  succession  to  the  flower  about  to  be  cut, 
as  dormant  eyes  are  not  desirable,  either  for  stock  or  a  future  crop  of  blooms. 

The  cuttings  should  be  sprinkled  as  soon  as  severed  from  the  parent 
plant,  and  great  care  exercised  to  prevent  wilting,  or  the  cuttings  getting 
checked  in  any  way.  Remove  the  lower  leaves,  but  retain  the  heel,  and  only 
trim  off  any  loose  part.  Cut  the  tops  back  so  as  to  admit  air  and  light  to 
the  propagating  bed. 

Clean,  sharp  sand  is  best  for  propagating  purposes.  This  should  be  spread 
on  a  bench  with  a  tile  or  brick  bottom,  firmly  pressed  down  to  a  depth  of  three 
inches,  and  thoroughly  watered  before  inserting  the  cuttings  in  it.  These 
should  be  set  in  rows,  three  inches  apart,  and  four  cuttings  to  the  inch  in  the 
row,  inserting  them  three-quarters  to  one  inch  in  depth,  pressed  firmly,  and 
watered.  A  bottom  heat  of  60  degrees  and  a  top  temperature  of  50  to  521 
degrees  will  insure  successful  propagation  in  three  to  four  weeks.  Keep 
the  beds  moderately  moist  during  this  time.  When  the  cuttings  are  rooted, 
pot  them  off  into  one  and  three-quarter-inch  pots,  shifting  to  two  and  one- 
quarter  and  three  and  one-half-inch  pots  as  the  season  advances  and  the 
plants  require  the  shift ;  but  never  allow  them  to  get  stunted,  or  dry,  as  this 
last  condition  is  the  first  step  toward  the  development  of  stem-rot,  and,  con- 
sequently, endless  trouble. 

Early  planting  is  desirable,  and  may  be  done  with  safety  from  May  15 
to  20,  and  later,  when  danger  of  severe  frost  is  usually  past  in  this  locality. 
Some  plant  out  earlier,  and  should  the  season  prove  favorable,  make  a  decided 
gain  in  time,  at  a  busy  season,  and  good  root  action  before  extreme  (heat 
sets  in ;  but  a  severe  frost  will  more  than  offset  this  gain ;  and  I  have  found 
it  safer  to  defer  planting  for  a  week  or  two  later.  Eighteen  to  twenty  inches 
is  a  convenient  distance  between  the  rows,  and  six  to  eight  inches  between 
the  plants.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  plant  too  deep,  as  disaster 
through  stem-rot  is  sure  to  follow,  especially  during  a  wet  season.  Thor- 
oughly water  the  balls  and  roots  before  planting.  Press  the  soil  firmly 
around  the  ball,  but  don't  set  the  surface  of  the  ball  lower  than  the  level  of 
the  ground.  Where  the  nature  of  the  soil  will  permit,  begin  using  the  Planet 

261 


Carnation   Culture  in  Massachusetts 

Junior  hand  wheel  hoe  at  once,  and  continue  cultivating,  on  an  average,  once 
a  week.  This  will  keep  the  soil  mellow,  attract  the  night  moisture  on  the 
surface,  and  retain  the  bottom  moisture,  especially  should  the  season  prove 
dry.  Keep  the  soil  clear  of  weeds  at  all  times,  as  these  often  cause  attacks 
of  insect  pests,  and  therefore  no  end  of  trouble,  especially  should  red  spider 
appear.  Syringing  with  common  salt,  a  two  and  one-quarter-inch  pot- 
ful  to  a  pail  of  water,  I  have  found  the  best  remedy  for  this  evil ;  and  I  have 
also  checked  it  by  covering  the  affected  plants  with  fine  tobacco  dust. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  pinching  back  the  plants  while  in 
the  field;  those  with  a  tendency  to  bloom  late  should,  in  some  cases,  be 
pinched  only  once — removing  the  center  shoot.  This  method  usually  insures 
a  crop  for  the  holidays,  without  fail.  Early  bloomers  may  be  pinched  as  late 
as  the  latter  part  of  July,  or  August,  and  still  give  early  returns.  Never 
pinch  off  all  the  shoots  on  a  plant  at  one  time,  but  pursue  a  method  of  going 
over  the  field,  say,  once  a  week,  and,  if  necessary,  pinch  one  or  two  shoots 
on  each  plant.  This  will  induce  a  steady  supply  of  flowers  later  and  pre- 
vent them  coming  in  crops.  Any  variety  can  be  made  a  "cropper"  by  stop- 
ping all  the  shoots  at  one  time,  or  a  grower  can  help  to  change  the  tendency 
of  a  carnation  to  "crop"  by  pinching  the  stems  at  an  interval  of  one  or  two 
weeks  apart. 

From  July  15  to  August  20  is  a  good  time  in  which  to  transfer  plants 
from  the  field  to  the  carnation  houses.  If  the  weather  be  exceedingly  hot,  begin 
lifting  a  week  or  ten  days  later,  but  try  and  finish  the  work  not  latef  tlhan 
August  20,  as  plants  put  in  later  seldom  catch  up  to,  or  prove  as  profitable 
as,  early-planted  stock,  which  has  thorough  root  action  established  before 
artificial  heat  is  applied. 

Thoroughly  clean  out  all  old  soil  from  the  carnation  houses;  repair 
and  lime-wash  all  the  woodwork  with  which  the  soil  comes  in  contact. 
Spread  a  layer  of  stable  or  old  cow  manure  over  the  bottom  of  the  bench, 
and  then  fill  in  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  loose.  Soil  that  is 
moderately  moist  is  best,  as  it  remains  mellow,  and  does  not  get  hard  and 
caked  when  planting.  Press  the  soil  moderately  firm  before  planting.  (A 
man  treading  over  the  surface  once  will  do  it  nicely.)  Level  the  soil,  and 
stretch  wires  lengthwise  on  the  benches,  eight  or  ten  inches  apart ;  pull  these 
wires  tight,  and  secure  them  to  a  nail  at  each  end.  They  act  as  guides  in 
keeping  the  lines  straight,  and,  with  cross  strings,  are  used  later  as  supports 
for  the  flowers.  Wires  inserted  at  this  stage  save  much  time  and  loss  through 
breakage  of  the  flower  stems,  as  they  can  simply  be  raised  into  place  when 

262 


Carnation   Culture  in  Massachusetts 

wanted.  No.  12  wire  on  each  side  of  the  bench,  and  No.  22  galvanized  wire 
between  the  rows,  I  find  the  best  sizes. 

Send  careful  men  to  lift  the  plants  in  the  field.  Be  very  careful  to  retain 
the  small  roots  on  pot-grown  stock.  Keep  the  plants  covered  from  the  sun 
to  prevent  them  drying  out,  and  be  sure  that  the  balls  are  moist  before  plant- 
ing. Of  course  dull  weather  is  most  suited  to  the  operation  of  transplant- 
ing, but  one  cannot  always  wait  for  it. 

Have  a  good  man  working  on  each  side  of  the  bench  (and  your  best 
men  are  none  too  good,  as  much  depends  on  careful  planting).  Instead  of 
digging  a  hole  for  the  plant,  pound  the  soil  with  the  closed  fist,  which  will 
usually  make  an  indention  deep  enough  for  the  ball;  spread  out  the  roots 
carefully,  and  be  sure  that  the  plant  is  not  set  any  deeper  than  it  was  when 
growing  in  the  field.  Deep  planting  in  the  houses  is  a  serious  matter,  and 
the  cause  of  untold  loss  from  stem-rot. 

I  find  it  pays  to  put  a  wire  support  to  each  plant  before  planting  the 
next ;  the  old  Excelsior  support  answers  the  purpose  well,  as  I  use  the  wires 
and  twine  later. 

Water  carefully  and  in  sufficient  supply  to  thoroughly  wet  the  soil 
through  in  the  vicinity  of  the  roots.  Shade  the  houses  for  a  few  days,  with 
fire-clay,  or  some  material  easily  removed  by  rains  or  hose.  Keep  all  walls, 
and  space  under  the  benches,  dampened  down  until  root  action  is  well  estab- 
lished ;  don't  allow  the  plants  to  get  dry  and  wilted  on  any  account,  but  avoid 
getting  the  soil  in  a  water-logged  condition,  which  is  equally  bad.  Keep  a 
sharp  lookout  for  aphis  and  red  spider.  Fumigating  with  tobacco  stems, 
or  powder,  is  a  safeguard  for  the  former;  and  syringing  with  salt — a  two 
and  a  quarter-inch  potful  to  a  pail  of  water,  and  applied  in  a  fine  spray — • 
is  a  sure  remedy  for  the  latter.  Don't  wait  until  you  see  the  pests ;  apply 
the  preventives  once  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  remember  that  ''an  ounce  of 
prevention  is  worth  more  than  a  pound  of  cure."  Carefully  pinch  off  all 
flower  stems  that  come  too  short,  and  encourage  all  strong  growth.  Dis- 
bud at  regular  intervals,  and  as  soon  as  surplus  buds  can  be  removed  without 
injury  to  the  main  flower. 

Cultivate  between  the  rows,  just  deep  enough  to  remove  the  weeds 
as  they  appear ;  but  don't  disturb  the  small  feeding  roots,  if  possible.  Should 
the  soil  show  signs  of  becoming  sour,  an  application  of  air-slaked  lime  will 
sweeten  and  regulate  the  evil.  This  lime  may  be  applied  with  beneficial 
results  all  through  the  forcing  season. 

See  to  it  that  the  network  of  wires  and  twine  is  put  up  before  growth 
advances  far,  as  it  is  then  easier  applied,  and  prevents  crooked  stems  and 

263 


Carnation  Culture   in  Massachusetts 

breakage  later.  Six  inches  above  the  ring  I  find  a  good  distance  for  the 
first  tier,  and  ten  to  twelve  inches  above  this  for  the  next.  But  the  needs 
of  the  variety  must  govern  the  distance.  A  light  strip  of  wood,  seven- 
eighths  of  an  inch  square,  with  a  groove  cut  with  a  saw  in  each  end,  should 
run  across  the  bed,  at  distances  of  five  or  six  feet  apart.  The  outside  No. 
12  wires,  inserted  into  these  grooves,  keep  the  wires  at  a  uniform  distance, 
and  allow  tightening  of  the  cross  strips.  Two-ply  hemp  is  a  good  size  to 
use.  A  sixpenny  nail  driven  through,  about  one  inch  from  each  end  of 
the  cross  strips,  and  inserted  in  the  end  of  a  bamboo  cane,  pushed  down 
firmly  to  the  bottom  of  the  bench,  and  cut  to  the  desired  height,  will  keep 
the  whole  framework  at  a  uniform  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  bench. 
The  strainers  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  bench  can  be  made  of  pipe  or  angle- 
iron,  which  are  neater  in  appearance  than  wood. 

A  night  temperature  of  52  to  55  degrees  is  a  safe  one  to  maintain  dur- 
ing the  winter  months,  with  a  rise  of  15  degrees  during  the  day,  when 
sunny. 

Plants  that  have  been  housed  early  in  July  will  benefit  by  a  light  stimu- 
lant, in  the  form  of  weak  liquid  manure,  during  the  latter  part  of  November 
or  December,  but  later  planted  stock  will  not  require  any  extra  nourish- 
ment for  a  month  subsequently,  providing  the  proper  ingredients  were  incor- 
porated into  the  soil  before  planting  time. 

Regarding  the  compost  to  use,  in  the  East,  where  loam  is  gen- 
erally shallow,  the  best  plan  is  to  plough  the  sod  on  an  old  pasture 
as  soon  as  the  hay  is  cut,  which  is  usually  during  June  or  early 
in  July.  In  the  fall  this  should  be  stacked  in  ridges  eight  to 
ten  feet  wide  and  two  to  three  feet  deep,  turning  the  grass  side  down; 
and  a  liberal  dressing,  say,  about  one  foot  of  cow  manure,  or  half  stable 
manure,  spread  over  the  surface,  and  allowed  to  remain  until  early  spring, 
when  the  whole  should  be  cut  up,  thoroughly  mixed,  and  a  liberal  sprink- 
ling of  bone  meal  applied.  I  have  found  it  beneficial  to  apply  half  the  fer- 
tilizer in  the  fall,  when  stacking  up  the  sod,  and  the  balance  during  spring, 
when  turning  and  mixing  the  compost,  as  bone  meal  often  requires  months 
to  decompose  sufficiently  to  be  available  for  plant  food ;  and  when  applied 
as  a  top  dressing  indoors,  during  winter,  has  not  become  of  service  until 
after  the  soil  has  been  cleaned  out  for  the  next  season's  crop,  and  so  its 
fertilizing  benefits  have  been  lost. 

As  a  stimulant,  weak  applications  of  liquid  manure  are  beneficial  dur- 
ing the  spring  and  summer  months,  for  general  culture.  For  several  years 
I  have  used  pulverized  sheep  manure  as  a  top  dressing  (instead  of  liquid) 

264 


Carnation  Culture   in  Massachusetts 


with  good  results,  applying  it  every  two  to  three  weeks  during  the  spring 
and  summer,  affording  two  handfuls  to  the  row  on  a  four  and  one-half  to  five- 
foot  bench.  When  the  soil  showed  signs  of  becoming  sour,  that  condition  is 
easily  rectified  by  an  application  of  air-slaked  lime,  which  should  be  at  once 
watered  into  the  soil  to  prevent  the  lime  getting  hard  upon  the  surface. 

Always  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  insect  pests.  Fumigate  regularly  with 
the  most  effective  and  cheapest  remedy  procurable.  Spray  with  salt  to  pre- 
vent attacks  of  red  spider,  but  don't  let  the  solution  touch  the  blooms.  Dis- 
bud regularly,  and  as  soon  as  the  surplus  buds  can  be  removed.  Pay  close 
attention  to  maintaining  the  proper  night  and  day  temperatures,  affording 
ample  ventilation  on  all  favorable  occasions;  and  keep  the  houses  scrupu- 
lously clean  of  all  rubbish,  as  this  means  health  to  the  plants. 

PETER   FISHER 

Peter  Fisher  of  Ellis,  Mass.,  was  born  November  4,   1857,  at  St.  Colmes  Farm, 
Parish  of  Dowally,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  the  home  farm  of  the  Duke  of  Athol,  to  whom 

his  father  was  land  steward  for  a  period  of 
nineteen  years  until  his  death  in  September, 
1861.  Mr.  Fisher  received  his  early  educa- 
tion in  the  parish  schools  of  Dunkeld,  Perth- 
shire, Scotland,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  began 
to  serve  an  apprenticeship  of  three  years  in 
the  Dunkeld  Gardens,  the  seat  of  the  Dowager 
Duchess  of  Athol.  There  he  remained  for 
seven  years,  subsequently  removing  to  Lon- 
don, England,  where  he  was  employed  in  the 
nurseries  of  B.  S.  Williams,  Upper  Hollo- 
way,  and,  later,  in  private  establishments  in 
the  south  and  north  of  England. 

Mr.  Fisher  came  to  America  in  1884,  land- 
ing in  New  York  on  June  22  of  that  year. 
He  was  first  employed  on  the  Payson  Estate 
in  Belmont,  Mass.,  and,  subsequently,  at  Oak- 
ley, Mass.,  on  the  estate  of  Robert  M.  Pratt, 
Esq.  In  company  with  his  brother,  he  started 
in  business  in  a  commercial  way  in  Septem- 
ber, 1886,  under  the  firm  name  of  Fisher  Bros. 
&  Co.  Having  sold  out  his  interest  in  that 
concern,  Mr.  Fisher  moved  to  Ellis,  Mass., 
on  May  31,  1890.  Here  he  became  actively 
interested  in  the  carnation  in  1892.  In  1893 
he  raised  the  varieties  Edith  Foster  and 

Freedom,  both  white  varieties,  crosses  of  Lizzie  McGowan  and  Silver  Spray.  Edith 
Foster  was  disseminated  in  1896  and  Freedom  in  1897.  The  now  famous  Mrs.  Thomas 

26; 


PETER  FISHER 


Carnation  Culture  in  Richmond,   Indiana 

W.  Lawson  carnation,  cerise,  was  disseminated  in  1900.  The  price  at  which  this 
carnation  was  sold  was  $11,500,  the  highest  figure  ever  obtained  for  one  variety  of 
carnation  up  to  that  time.  The  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson  carnation  was  raised  from 
Daybreak,  crossed  with  Van  Leeuwen,  the  former  variety  being  the  seed  bearer,  the  lat- 
ter the  pollen  parent  in  color,  cerise,  resembling  the  variety  Tidal  Wave.  The  seed  was 
sown  April  2,  1894,  and  the  first  flowers  were  obtained  in  September  of  the  same  year. 
The  variety  Mrs.  Lawson  has  won  five  silver  cups,  two  silver  medals,  a  gold  medal  at 
The  American  Carnation  Society  meeting,  held  at  Baltimore  in  1901,  and  numerous  cer- 
tificates of  merit. 

Another  of  Mr.  Fisher's  productions  is  the  variety  Governor  Wolcott,  white,  which 
was  disseminated  in  1902.  It  was  obtained  from  Flora  Hill,  white,  crossed  with  Mrs. 
Thos.  W.  Lawson,  cerise,  the  former  being  the  seed  bearer.  The  seed  of  this  variety 
was  sown  in  March,  1898,  and  the  plants  bloomed  the  following  September.  It  has 
been  awarded  numerous  certificates  of  merit. 

Enchantress,  another  of  Mr.  Fisher's  productions,  was  raised  from  Mrs.  Geo.  M. 
Bradt  variety  crossed  with  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  in  1899.  The  seed  was  sown  in 
March  of  that  year;  the  variety  first  bloomed  in  the  following  August.  Enchantress 
is  being  introduced  to  the  trade  by  The  J.  D.  Thompson  Carnation  Co.,  of  Joliet,  111., 
to  whom  Mr.  Fisher  sold  all  the  stock,  less  3,000  plants  for  his  own  use,  for  the  sum 
of  $7,000. 


Carnation  Culture  in  Richmond,  Indiana 

BY  E.  G.  HILL 

Carnation  culture  has  received  no  small  degree  of  consideration  at  the 
hands  of  growers  and  specialists  in  this  grand  state  of  the  Middle  West. 
The  attention  of  the  trade  growers  of  the  country  was  directed  toward  this 
section,  some  twelve  years  ago,  by  a  number  of  fine  seedling  novelties  which 
had  been  originated  in  the  State.  The  influence  of  Mr.  Fred.  Dorner's  im- 
proved varieties  tended  to  awaken  and  stimulate  additional  interest  in  the 
flower,  both  in  his  own  section  and  throughout  the  whole  country.  This 
influence  has  its  full  effect  here,  at  Richmond,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the 
cross-fertilization  of  the  carnation  was  gone  into,  with  very  interesting 
results.  Armazindy,  Triumph,  and  Flora  Hill  were  the  products  of  our 
earlier  work;  America  and  Gaiety,  of  more  recent  efforts. 

In  addition  to  the  improvement  of  this  flower,  by  the  introduction  of 
finer  sorts,  entirely  new  cultural  methods  were  adopted  gradually,  through 
several  years  of  careful  experimenting,  which  has  been  done  in  a  conserva- 
tive and  painstaking  manner,  requiring  infinite  patience  in  waiting  for  results, 
and  in  recording  them  for  future  use.  The  new  culture  has  worked  wonders 
for  the  carnation.  The  methods  adopted  began  with  the  cuttings  used  for 

266 


Carnation  Culture  in  Richmond,   Indiana 

propagation,  and  their  treatment  while  being  rooted  on  the  bench.  Healthy, 
vigorous  side-shoots  are  selected;  these  are  placed  in  clean,  sharp  sand, 
and  are  rooted  in  as  cool  a  temperature  as  is  practicable.  It  is  absolutely 
essential  that  the  sand  be  in  the  right  condition ;  it  must  be  clean,  gritty,  and 
free  from  loam,  or  other  extraneous  material.  It  is  now  generally  believed 
that  much  of  the  disease  called  stem-rot  is  generated  in  impure  sand,  aided 
by  a  too-warm  temperature.  The  sand  is  seldom  used  more  than  once,  unless 
it  be  washed  and  dried  thoroughly  between  times. 

After  the  cuttings  are  rooted  thoroughly,  they  are  either  pricked  off 
into  shallow  flats,  or  planted  out  on  the  bench  in  a  good  carnation  soil.  The 
endeavor  is  made  to  keep  this  young  stock  in  a  house  by  itself,  giving 
an  abundance  of  air,  and  keeping  a  close  watch  to  prevent  the  insect  enemies 
of  the  carnation  from  getting  a  foothold.  This  is  very  important,  for  severe 
injury  is  often  inflicted  upon  young  stock  by  these  pests,  from  which  they 
never  fully  recover. 

Here,  at  Richmond,  the  young  plants  are  set  out  in  the  open  ground 
as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be  worked.  This  method  is  preferred 
to  growing  indoors  through  the  summer,  though  a  few  varieties  like  Mrs. 
Thomas  W.  Lawson  are  cultivated  in  the  house,  with  very  satisfactory 
results. 

The  preparation  of  the  field  for  growing  carnations  is  very  important. 
If  the  ground  is  low,  or  inclined  to  be  wet,  underdraining  is  resorted  to ; 
if  the  ground  is  a  stiff  clay  loam,  it  is  the  better  for  being  sub-soiled. 
Manure  is  applied,  old  well-rotted  humus  being  preferred.  This  is  placed 
on  the  soil  the  preceding  summer,  and  is  ploughed  in,  to  thoroughly  incor- 
porate it  with  the  soil,  and  to  render  it  easy  of  assimilation  by  the  plants.  A 
Planet  Junior  wheel  hoe  is  used  in  cultivation ;  the  rows  being  about  twenty 
inches  apart. 

The  matter  of  pinching  is  largely  a  question  of  variety,  some  sorts  requir- 
ing more  nipping  back  than  others. 

If  climatic  conditions  are  favorable,  we  prefer  lifting  our  plants  the 
latter  part  of  July,  usually  finishing  early  in  August. 

We  use  for  compost,  for  indoor  planting,  a  good  loam,  enriched  with 
one-eighth  manure  and  with  a  liberal  admixture  of  bone-flour ;  this  is  com- 
posted usually  a  year  in  advance,  and  is  turned  at  least  once  before  using. 
We  place  four  to  five  inches  of  soil  on  our  benches  in  which  the  plants  are 
grown.  We  prefer  for  the  bottoms  of  our  benches  the  ordinary  soft  three- 
inch  clay  tile ;  these  tiles  afford  a  good  drainage,  and  their  porous  character 
prevents  anything  like  over-watering  in  dark  weather. 

267 


Carnation  Culture  in  Richmond,   Indiana 

In  supporting  the  carnation,  we  use  a  circle  of  wire,  with  a  bent  foot 
for  the  first  help;  after  that,  wires  are  strung  lengthwise  of  the  bed,  these 
being  cross-laced  with  twine,  through  which  the  stems  of  the  carnations  rise 
as  they  grow.  Two  sets  of  wires,  with  interlaced  twine,  one  above  the  other, 
are  necessary  as  the  plants  increase  in  height,  the  spacing  of  the  second  above 
the  first  tier  depending  upon  the  length  of  stem  of  the  variety  supported. 

The  distance  that  plants  are  spaced  on  the  benches  is  usually  ten  or 
eleven  inches ;  some  varieties  require  wider  spacing  than  others,  and  often  an 
unusually  favorable  growing  season  will  necessitate  planting  twelve  by  twelve 
inches. 

We  seldom  use  stimulants,  in  the  shape  of  liquids,  or  chemical  fertilizers, 
until  the  end  of  January,  and  then  in  a  very  cautious  manner.  We  do, 
however,  use  a  mulch  of  old,  well-rotted  cow  manure  over  our  benches  soon 
after  the  plants  start  on  their  winter's  growth.  This  is  not  so  much  for 
the  enrichment  of  the  soil,  as  to  prevent  excessive  evaporation  on  sunny  days, 
and  to  keep  the  soil  in  a  nice,  moist  condition  for  the  working  of  the  young 
roots. 

Watering  is  a  science,  and  should  be  done  by  a  careful  and  competent 
man.  It  is  one  of  those  processes  requiring  an  intelligent  knowledge  of 
soils  and  plant  natures,  where  extremes  must  be  avoided,  and  where  each 
variety  must  be  studied  individually  and  water  applied  accordingly  to  keep 
the  plants  in  healthy,  thrifty  growth.  One  advantage  of  the  tile  bench  is, 
that  it  speedily  corrects  over-watering,  which  is  direfully  fatal  in  dark 
weather,  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  porosity  of  the  tile  requires  a  sharp 
watch  that  the  roots  do  not  dry  out  in  warm  and  sunny  weather. 

Air  is  a  prime  factor  in  the  healthy  growth  of  carnations.  Give  air 
on  every  sunny  day ;  and  even  in  damp  and  wet  weather  it  is  still  beneficial. 
Better  use  a  little  heat  to  dry  the  atmosphere,  even  if  it  does  go  out  of  the 
ventilators,  and  so  sweeten  and  purify  the  house. 

A  temperature  of  52  to  54  degrees  will  be  found  productive  of  good, 
hardy  growth,  with,  say,  56  degrees  for  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson  and 
Ethel  %Crocker. 

Fungoid  diseases  and  insect  pests  are  present  where  inattention,  or 
carelessness,  is  allowed  to  govern.  The  use  of  tobacco  is  essential  in  keeping 
down  aphis  and  some  other  pests.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  preventive  of  rust ; 
but  a  careful  picking  of  the  infected  foliage  will  tend  to  eradicate  this  dis- 
ease. 

268 


Carnation  Culture  in  Richmond,   Indiana 


EDWARD    GURXEY    HILL 

Edward  Gurney  Hill  was  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1847,  and  with  his 
parents  came  to  this  country  in  1851.  When  quite  a  lad  he  entered  the  greenhouses 

of  Messrs.  T.  C.  Maxwell  &  Bros.,  Geneva, 
New  York.  In  1881  he  formed  a  partner- 
ship with  his  father,  and  together  they 
founded  the  present  business  at  Richmond, 
Indiana.  Mr.  Hill  has  been  an  enthusiastic 
lover  of  greenhouse  work  from  his  boyhood 
up.  Hybridization  and  cross-fertilization 
have  always  had  a  special  attraction  for  him, 
not  only  as  regards  carnations,  but  in  all  the 
leading  lines  of  plants. 

Mr.  Hill  became  deeply  interested  in  car- 
nation culture  in  1890,  from  a  cut  flower 
point  of  view.  Previous  to  that,  and  dating 
back  to  1884,  the  firm  had  bought  the  novel- 
ties as  offered,  and  had  grown  La  Purite, 
Portia,  Tidal  Wave,  Daybreak  and  Heintz's 
White  in  quantity.  In  1890,  the  concern  pur- 
chased a  large  number  of  seedlings  from  Mr. 
Fred.  Dorner,  many  of  which  proved  extra- 
ordinarily fine  as  to  blooming  qualities,  al- 
though all  have  been  dropped  by  growers  on 
account  of  defects  which  barred  them  from 
success  when  grown  commercially.  Among 
these  may  be  remembered  Edna  Craig,  Fred. 
Dorner,  Edwin  Lonsdale,  Christine,  Hoosier,  Indiana,  Creole,  Red  Cross,  San  Mateo, 
Canada,  Cherry  Lips,  Sea  Gull  and  Ben  Hur.  A  number  of  the  kinds  named  would 
still  rank  with  the  finest  if  only  the  quality  of  bloom  produced  needed  to  be  considered, 
apart  from  freedom,  earliness  or  cost  of  production — factors  not  so  carefully  scanned 
ten  years  ago  as  at  the  present  day,  for  we  were  then  working  with  more  than  one 
unknown  quantity  in  the  carnation  line. 

About  this  time  Mr.  Hill's  firm  began  growing  seedling  carnations  on  quite  a 
large  scale.  Several  years  were  required  to  test  the  varieties,  and  it  was  not  until 
1896  that  any  sorts  of  their  own  origination  were  sent  out,  when  they  introduced 
Triumph,  Armazindy,  Abundance  and  Jubilee,  the  latter  purchased  from  Mr.  John 
Hartje,  of  Indianapolis. 

In  1897  the  firm  introduced  the  two  seedlings,  Flora  Hill  and  Mrs.  McBurney;  in 
1898,  Painted  Lady,  Psyche;  in  1899,  America;  and  in  1903,  Adonis,  which  was  pur- 
chased from  Richard  Witterstsetter  and  introduced  jointly  by  Messrs.  Robert  Craig 
and  E.  G.  Hill. 

Mr.  Hill  has  always  been  an  enthusiastic  worker  for  horticultural  improvement 
and  a  loyal  proponent  and  supporter  of  horticulturists'  organizations.  He  is  a  member 
of  The  American  Carnation  Society,  The  Society  of  American  Florists,  The  American 
Rose  Society,  The  Indiana  State  Florists'  Society,  as  well  as  other  horticultural  asso- 
ciations. 

269 


EDWARD  GURXEY  HILL 


Carnation  Culture  in  the  Mountains 
Carnation  Culture  in  the  Mountains 

BY  HENRY  WEBER,  OAKLAND,  MD. 

Variations  in  latitude,  altitude,  climate,  etc.,  while  having  their  effect 
on  the  modes  of  culture  pursued  by  growers  thus  differently  situated,  do 
not,  to  any  appreciable  extent,  alter  the  fundamental  principles  underlying  the 
successful  culture  of  the  carnation. 

Here,  in  the  mountain  district  of  Western  Maryland,  nearly  3,000  feet 
above  tidewater,  we  find  ourselves  handicapped  by  extremely  late  frosts  in 
the  spring,  and  very  early  visitations  in  the  fall.  Owing  to  the  former,  we 
are  very  seldom  able  to  commence  field  planting  before  May  20,  and  occa- 
sionally later ;  we  therefore  are  frequently  as  late  as  June  5  to  10  in  finishing 
up  that  work. 

The  effect  of  this  must  be  at  once  apparent  to  those  who  plant  in  April 
and  early  May.  Our  plants  do  not  get  sufficiently  developed  in  the  field 
to  permit  us  to  plant  in  the  house  until  the  last  of  July,  or  first  week 
in  August.  We  are  thus  compelled  to  carry  our  young  stock  inside  for 
from  four  to  six  weeks  longer  than  the  majority  of  growers,  necessitating 
a  quick  dispatch  of  field-planting,  when  the  proper  season  arrives.  This 
handicap  is  partially  offset  by  our  cool  nights  during  the  summer,  when  the 
temperature  ranges  anywhere  from  42  to  65  degrees.  We  are  also  very 
rarely  troubled  with  drought,  but  more  often  have  a  wet  season.  On  the 
whole,  the  growing  conditions  during  the  summer  frequently  approach  the 
ideal. 

By  September  I  we  can  expect  light  frosts,  and  severe  ones  by  the  I5th, 
but  occasionally  we  escape  these  until  October  I.  This,  however,  is  unusual. 
We  are  thus  not  only  compelled  to  carry  our  stock  inside  much  longer  than 
the  average  grower,  but  are  also  obliged  to  have  our  fields  cleared  of  valu- 
able plants  proportionately  earlier  in  the  fall.  Our  firing  season  is  affected 
in  a  like  manner,  ending  usually  about  May  15  to  20,  and  commencing  in 
September. 

We  begin  propagating  in  December,  and  continue  until  May  I  to  10.  We 
much  prefer  the  early  propagated  stock,  particularly  in  the  case  of  such 
varieties  as  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  Cressbrook,  Prosperity  and  Norway. 
Cuttings  taken  prior  to  February  1 5  can  be  depended  upon,  invariably,  to  give 
the  best  results,  providing  they  receive  proper  attention  as  soon  as  rooted, 
and  until  they  are  transferred  to  the  field. 

Our  propagating  houses  are  all  of  the  north-side  type.  We  consider 
them  far  superior  to  those  which  admit  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  They  are 

270 


Carnation  Culture  in  the  Mountains 

more  easily  managed  and  regulated,  particularly  as  regards  temperature  and 
watering,  the  two  most  vital  requisites  connected  with  the  unrooted  cuttings. 
Frequent  watering  and  spraying  is  unnecessary,  thus  largely  diminishing 
the  chances,  or  possibilities,  of  the  development  of  cutting-bench  fungus;  in 
fact,  if  the  pips  are  not  put  too  closely  in  the  sand,  we  have  not  the  slightest 
fear  of  this  disease.  In  this  connection,  I  might  say  that  we  are  never 
compelled  to  renew  our  sand  during  the  entire  season. 

We  ascribe  all  this  to  the  advantages  of  the  north-side  propagating 
house,  properly  heated  and  ventilated,  and  the  comparatively  little  watering 
and  spraying  required,  as  compared  with  a  house  which  admits  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  The  tendency  to  make  soft  growth  in  the  north-side  house 
is  practically  overcome  by  keeping  the  cuttings  on  the  dry  side,  as  soon  as 
they  begin  to  make  roots,  and  their  being  removed  as  soon  as  strong  enough. 

We  use  ordinary  creek  sand,  which  contains  more  or  less  loam,  decayed 
particles  of  twigs,  leaves,  etc.  We  consider  the  loam  and  other  materials 
mentioned  beneficial  rather  than  detrimental,  for  the  reason  that  as  soon  as 
the  first  tiny  rootlets  appear,  they  begin  to  take  some  nourishment ;  and  until 
they  are  removed  from  the  sand,  in  ten  to  fifteen  days,  they  are  adding  to 
the  vitality,  instead  of  being  obliged  to  subsist  on  what  small  amount  remains 
to  them,  as  in  the  case  where  absolutely  clean  sand  is  used,  and  which  con- 
tains no  nourishment. 

In  taking  cuttings,  we  are  not  so  particular  as  to  what  portion  of  the 
plant  the  pips  come  from,  as  we  are  about  the  health  and  strength  of  the 
plants.  We  refrain,  however,  from  taking  the  topmost  pips  from  the  flower- 
ing stems,  and,  also,  the  slow  growth  at  the  base  of  the  plant.  We  also 
prefer  the  cuttings  to  be  of  good  size,  and  well  developed.  What  we  con- 
sider the  best  cuttings  are  those  taken  from  the  short  shoots  before  they 
begin  to  lengthen,  preparatory  to  developing  buds.  We  break  off  these 
shoots  several  joints  away  from  the  stem;  cuttings  so  taken  we  regard  as 
being  the  ideal. 

We  do  very  little  trimming,  and  usually  confine  this  operation  to 
removing  the  bottom  leaves  so  as  to  prevent  their  lying  flat  on  the  sand ;  and, 
if  the  cuttings  are  very  long,  we  remove  a  little  from  the  top.  The  more 
foliage  removed  the  less  vitality  the  pip  has  left  on  which  to  subsist  until 
rooted,  or  potted,  or  boxed  up. 

We  grow  as  much  of  our  young  stock  as  we  can  on  benches,  in  two 
and  one-half  or  three  inches  of  fairly  rich  soil ;  and  set  the  cuttings  about  three 
inches  apart  each  way.  As  soon  as  established,  we  grow  them  cool,  both 
night  and  day,  affording  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

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Carnation  Culture  in  the  Mountains 

Next  to  this  system,  we  prefer  flats,  with  treatment  similar  to  that  above 
described. 

We  regard  growing  cuttings  in  pots  as  the  least  desirable  method,  unless 
the  stock  is  frequently  repotted,  or  removed  to  flats,  or  benches,  before  the 
plants  become  potbound. 

Before  cutting  back,  we  allow  a  young  plant  to  attain  a  height  of  six  or 
eight  inches,  this  depending  somewhat  on  the  variety;  and  then  we  only 
remove  the  tip  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  center  from  growing  out  again. 
This  induces  branching  out  a  little  distance  above  the  soil,  and  makes  a  fast, 
strong,  vigorous  plant.  If  cut  back  close  to  the  soil,  when  still  small,  a  slow 
and  checked  plant  is  the  result,  with  branches  close  to  the  ground,  inviting 
all  sorts  of  fungous  diseases,  and  proving  a  harbor  for  snails  and  other  pests. 

Our  preparation  of  the  field,  to  receive  the  young  plants  in  the  spring, 
consists  of  putting  on  a  good  coating  of  stable  manure  (cow  preferred)  on 
either  a  clover  or  timothy  sod,  and  plowing  it  under  in  November.  To  this 
is  added,  early  in  the  spring,  a  light  dressing  of  lime  and  a  good  dressing 
of  kainit  and  bone  meal.  As  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough,  we  cut  it  up  with 
a  disk  harrow,  repeating  this  operation  often  enough  to  prevent  weeds 
from  growing.  A  smoothing  harrow  and  leveler  is  next  used,  when  we 
are  ready  to  plant.  The  plants  are  set  fifteen  inches  apart,  each  way,  with 
ten  rows  to  a  bed. 

At  first,  a  wheel  hoe,  consisting  simply  of  a  sharp  blade  being  passed 
horizontally  just  beneath  the  surface,  is  the  only  cultivation  the  plants 
receive.  As  they  become  larger,  this  hoe  is  discarded  for  a  small  shovel 
machine,  that  goes  a  trifle  deeper.  This  cultivation,  after  every  rain,  or 
oftener  if  the  weather  be  very  dry,  is  all  the  plants  receive,  excepting  that 
they  are  carefully  hoed  by  hand  once,  and  sometimes  twice,  during  the 
season.  All  cultivation  is  discontinued,  usually,  by  August  i. 

In  preparing  soil  for  planting  in,  we  top-dress  either  clover  or  timothy 
soil  heavily  with  stable  manure,  and  plough  under  to  the  depth  of  five 
to  six  inches.  A  heavy  dressing  of  bonemeal,  kainit  and  a  little  nitrate  of 
soda,  is  then  worked  in  with  a  disk  harrow,  after  which  the  ground  is  again 
ploughed,  and  more  bone  meal,  etc.,  applied.  After  another  harrowing,  the 
soil  is  ready  to  stack  up  conveniently  near  the  houses,  this  being  done  in 
November.  When  ready  to  plant  in,  the  soil  is  worked  over  with  spades,  and 
made  fine.  In  planting,  we  use  five  inches  of  soil,  placing  the  plants  from 
ten  to  fourteen  inches  apart  each  way. 

We  always  prefer  to  lift  the  plants  when  the  soil  is  fairly  dry,  sprinkling 
them  in  the  field  as  soon  as  put  in  boxes.  We  never  shade  when  planting  in ; 

272 


Carnation  Culture  in  the  Mountains 

and  leave  some  soil  on  the  roots.  After  the  first  good  watering,  just  above 
the  roots,  we  spray  frequently,  if  the  weather  is  bright,  and  keep  the  ventila- 
tors wide  open.  As  the  plants  begin  to  take  hold,  we  discontinue  spraying, 
excepting  at  intervals,  to  wash  them  off,  and  to  assist  in  keeping  down  red 
spider.  For  this  pest  we  use  salt  water,  applied  with  an  "Auto-Spray" 
pump.  This  application  also  assists  in  keeping  down  snails  and  other  insects. 
A  four-inch  potful  of  salt  to  two  gallons  of  water  is  used,  and,  when  washed 
off  the  plants  with  the  hose,  is  very  beneficial,  making  the  growth  firm, 
and  improving  the  color. 

We  have  discarded  the  V-shaped  wire  netting,  and  consider  the  wire 
stretched  horizontally  between  the  rows,  and  twine  cross-wise,  as  infinitely 
superior,  as  well  as  cheaper  than  any  other  supporting  device  yet  invented. 
The  work  of  giving  support  is  attended  to  as  soon  as  planting  is  finished; 
after  which,  a  light  mulch,  of  especially  prepared  rich  soil,  is  put  on  and 
worked  in  lightly. 

If  we  plant  early  in  August,  we  commence  feeding  with  liquid  manure  in 
November,  provided  the  plants  are  growing  vigorously,  the  amount  of  stimu- 
lating they  can  stand  depending  entirely  on  how  the  soil  is  managed,  thorough 
watering,  and  the  manner  in  which  temperature  and  ventilation  are  regulated. 

A  temperature  of  58  to  60  degrees  for  the  early  part  of  the  night,  with 
a  drop  to  55  or  50  degrees  by  morning,  is,  we  believe,  the  ideal  temperature, 
and  in  keeping  with  the  natural  conditions  as  we  find  them  when  the  plants 
make  their  best  growth  out-of-doors.  A  day  temperature  of  60  to  65  degrees, 
for  cloudy  days,  and  70  to  80  degrees,  for  sunlight,  is  our  rule.  If  the  air  out- 
side is  cold,  we  adhere  to  the  first  figures,  and,  if  warm,  the  latter. 

We  believe  in  disbudding,  and  attend  rigorously  to  this  item,  allowing 
the  side  buds  to  get  large  enough  to  be  easily  handled  before  removing  them. 

At  the  approach  of  late  spring,  we  give  an  occasional  dressing  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  simply  broadcasting  it  thinly  over  the  plants  before  watering. 
In  this  way  the  vitality  of  the  plants  can  be  prolonged  well  into  the 
summer. 

We  begin  shading  from  the  middle  to  he  latter  part  of  April,  using 
naphtha,  or  gasolene,  and  white  lead. 

HENRY   WEBER 

Henry  Weber,  of  Oakland,  Maryland,  was  born  in  the  Province  of  Hessen-Cassel, 
Germany,  in  1835.  His  father,  John  Weber,  was  a  farmer  and  died  at  the  age  of 
sixty-three.  The  subject  of  this  sketch  is  the  youngest  and  only  survivor  of  five  children. 

As  is  customary  in  Germany,  Henry  Weber  attended  the  Government  schools  until  he 

is  273 


Carnation  Culture  in  Ohio 


was  fourteen  years  old,  when,  having  from  his  earliest  days  shown  an  unusual  love  for 
flowers,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  florist,  and  a  few  years  thereafter  was  made  foreman  of 

his  employer's  gardens  and  greenhouses,  on 
account  of  his  executive  ability. 

Having  a  natural  inclination  to  travel,  at 
nineteen  years  of  age  he  entered  the  British 
Army,  serving  during  the  Crimean  War. 
During  his  ten  years'  service  in  the  British 
Army  he  was  stationed  at  various  points  in 
Asia,  Africa,  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
where  he  had  many  thrilling  experiences, 
particularly  in  the  Hottentot  country. 

In  1885  he  decided  to  come  to  America, 
and  with  his  brother  John,  who  had  pre- 
ceded him,  embarked  in  general  farming  and 
market  gardening,  at  Mount  Savage,  Alle- 
gheny Co.,  Maryland.  At  the  end  of  five 
years  he  sold  his  interest  to  his  brother,  and 
removed  to  Cumberland,  Maryland,  where  he 
established  a  general  market  gardening  and 
florist  business.  In  1879,  he  bought  a  tract  of 
land  in  Garrett  County,  adjoining  the  town  of 
Oakland,  where  he  established  the  present  flor- 
ist business.  The  soil  and  climate  proving 
particularly  favorable  for  carnation  growing, 
special  attention  was  paid  to  the  culture  of 
that  plant,  which  [was  started  on  a  very 
modest  scale  with  a  view  of  building  up  a  local  trade. 

Mr.  Weber  thinks  there  is  a  great  future  for  the  carnation  and  that  its  improve- 
ment has  only  fairly  begun.  He  also  believes  that  Nature's  laws  regarding  color  and 
many  other  mysteries  of  plant  life  will  be  gradually  unfolded  to  the  persevering  and 
untiring  student.  He  takes  much  delight  in  the  raising  and  cultivation  of  seedlings. 
He  is  also  a  firm  believer  in  the  ultimate  success  of  sub-watering,  and  of  the  indoor 
culture  of  carnations. 

Mr.  Weber  is  an  active  member  of  The  American  Carnation  Society,  The  Society 
of  American  Florists,  and  other  organizations. 


Carnation  Culture  in  Ohio 

RY  RICHARD  WITTERSTVETTER,  SEDAMSVILLE,  OHIO. 

I  commence  propagation  in  January,  only  of  such  varieties  of  which 
the  stock  is  limited,  and  those  that  do  not  make  very  large  plants  from 
later  propagation,  Estelle  and  Mrs.  George  M.  Bradt  being  good  types.  I 


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Carnation  Culture  in  Ohio 

prefer  to  take  cuttings  of  the  larger  growing  varieties  from  February  to 
the  middle  of  March. 

The  style  of  propagating  bed  is  one  built  of  bricks,  laid  end  to  end  on 
four-inch  strips  of  one-inch  lumber  (red  cedar,  as  it  outlasts  pine  or 
hemlock  four  to  one).  This  exposes  just  one-half  the  bottom  of  the  bed 
to  the  heating  pipes  underneath.  About  two  inches  of  clean  sand  is  used. 
This  sand  should  never  be  employed  the  second  time,  as  experience  has 
proven  it  dangerous,  apt  to  breed  fungus  and  cause  other  troubles,  such 
as  damping,  etc.,  no  matter  how  temptingly  clean  the  sand  may  appear.  The 
shading  material  should  never  be  permitted  to  lie  directly  on  the  cuttings, 
as  it  creates  a  smothering  atmosphere  that  is  detrimental.  A  space  of 
six  inches  (twelve  inches  will  be  found  better)  should  at  least  be  allowed. 

In  selecting  the  cuttings  from  the  blooming  plant,  the  pips  on  the  stem, 
just  where  the  stem  is  cut,  and  upward,  should  be  used;  the  one  on  top 
not  being  taken.  From  such  varieties  as  do  not  make  many  cuttings  along 
the  stem,  I  prefer  to  take  the  cuttings  about  the  plant  before  they  shoot 
to  a  flowering  stem. 

All  cuttings  are  potted  after  being  rooted,  and  are  grown  in  a  cool 
temperature.  After  root  action  has  started,  the  pots  are  plunged  out  in  some 
light  soil  (screened  ashes  from  the  boiler  pit  preferred,  as  these  contain 
no  weed  seed  that  will  become  troublesome)  in  cold  frames,  during  March. 
This  helps  the  plants  to  harden  for  early  planting,  and  there  is  no  danger 
of  their  becoming  pot-bound.  Plants  in  cold  frames  have  an  advantage 
over  those  in  the  house,  as  the  sash  can  be  removed  on  any  warm,  bright 
day,  and  the  warm  rains  being  permitted  to  fall  on  the  stock  during  the 
first  part  of  April,  before  planting  out,  induce  vigorous  growth,  which  the 
plants  do  not  attain  in  the  house  under  the  most  careful  attention. 

Our  planting  season  begins  about  the  middle  of  April  and  ends  about  the 
loth  of  May.  It  is  very  essential  to  the  season's  quality  and  quantity  of 
cut  blooms  to  have  plants,  at  lifting  time,  in  the  most  vigorous  and  healthy 
condition,  and  no  amount  of  care  should  be  spared  in  attaining  this  end. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  planting,  we  give  the  same  a  top-dressing 
of  good  stable  manure,  ploughing  to  a  depth  and  harrowing  it  thoroughly. 
After  this,  we  reverse  the  harrow  and  drag  the  field,  which  leaves  the  sur- 
face smooth  and  well  pulverized.  Each  plant  is  watered  when  set  out,  as  a 
safeguard  against  its  wilting  before  the  next  rain,  as  we  are  liable  to  have 
very  drying  winds  at  this  season,  and  there  is  danger  of  the  ball  becoming 
dry. 

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Carnation  Culture  in  Ohio 

Plants  are  set  six  to  ten  inches  apart,  the  space  depending  upon  the 
variety ;  small  growing  sorts  the  former  distance,  and  larger  ones  the  latter. 
The  distance  between  rows  depends  upon  the  method  of  cultivation;  if 
for  wheel  hoe  cultivation,  sixteen  inches ;  and  for  horse  cultivator,  twenty-six 
inches  apart.  Whatever  method  is  used,  we  always  follow  with  a  hand 
hoeing,  stirring  the  soil  about  the  plant,  which  is  done  at  least  every 
two  weeks,  or  oftener,  as  the  conditions  require,  when  weeds  become  trouble- 
some, or  after  a  good  rain.  I  have  always  noticed  that  after  a  hot,  dry 
spell  of  weather,  followed  by  a  rain  with  a  hot,  humid  atmosphere,  stem  rot 
is  more  prevalent,  and  we  lose  no  time  in  giving  the  soil  a  thorough  stirring, 
as  a  means  of  checking  it ;  in  fact,  I  firmly  believe  this  operation  to  be  the 
means  of  saving  quite  a  lot  of  plants,  not  only  at  this  period,  but  at  any 
other  time  when  this  disease  makes  its  appearance. 

We  are  always  particular  in  attending  to  the  topping  of  our  plants  once 
a  week,  up  to  the  time  of  lifting,  the  last  time  just  previous  to  lifting,  as  by 
this  method  the  plants  are  not  so  liable  to  give  their  flowers  in  crops,  and 
produce  a  more  uniform  cut  than  otherwise.  The  top  should  be  taken  out 
just  as  it  begins  to  shoot  a  flower  stem.  Should  the  whole  of  the  plants 
show  this  latter  tendency,  we  take  a  part  of  the  tops,  allowing  the  others 
to  be  taken  a  week  or  two  hence,  to  prevent  the  plants  coming  in  crops. 
This  practice  is  usually  followed  the  latter  part  of  June  and  July.  We  have 
been  lifting  earlier  each  year,  and  do  not  think  after  July  15  any  too  soon  to 
do  this  work,  providing  the  weather  is  favorable ;  that  is,  not  extremely  hot. 

The  soil  for  the  benches  is  ploughed  up  in  April,  a  good  blue  grass 
sod  being  selected,  which  is  turned  under  to  the  depth  of  about  four  inches, 
then  harrowed  immediately  and  cultivated  whenever  weeds  appear.  We 
add  no  manure  of  any  kind,  as  I  believe  that  the  plants,  when  lifted  in  the 
early  part  of  summer,  start  off  better  in  this  soil  than  when  fertilizers  have 
been  added.  These  are  always  afforded  as  the  plants  progress.  Two  years 
ago,  during  a  very  severe  drought  at  lifting  time,  I  had  a  variety  planted 
in  two  separate  lots  in  a  field ;  one  lot  being  planted  on  the  edge,  along  a  row 
of  fruit  trees.  This  lot  was  badly  wilted,  and  being  anxious  to  have  them 
planted  in  the  same  house,  at  the  same  time  as  the. others,  I  lifted  the  wilted 
plants,  and  after  cleaning  them  of  all  the  dead  leaves  the  roots  of  the  plants 
were  placed  in  a  tub  containing  about  five  inches  of  water,  for  about  two 
hours,  to  freshen  them  up  before  planting.  These  plants  recovered  so  much 
better  than  the  remainder  not  so  treated,  that  we  have  adopted  this  system 
ever  since,  in  the  case  of  all  our  plants,  with  gratifying  results. 

In  shading,  I  prefer  whiting,  or  air-slaked  lime,  put  on  evenly.     Any 

276 


Carnation  Culture  in  Ohio 

dark  shade,  such  as  clay,  I  believe  to  be  injurious  to  the  plants,  inducing  a 
somewhat  soft  growth.  Just  enough  ventilation  is  given  the  first  two  or  three 
days  to  obtain  a  moderate  circulation  of  air,  gradually  increasing  the  ventila- 
tion from  day  to  day  until  the  plants  will  take  the  full  extent.  Shading  is 
also  gradually  diminished.  After  this,  ventilation  is  kept  on  night  and  day, 
the  ventilators  being  lowered  only  in  case  of  storms. 

We  syringe  overhead  often  enough  to  keep  down  red  spider,  which  is 
about  two  or  three  times  a  week ;  or  oftener,  as  the  weather  demands.  This 
is  kept  up  until  there  is  danger  of  the  plants  not  drying  off  before  late  in  the 
day.  We  do  not  syringe  overhead  after  November  15  or  December  i,  until 
March  i  to  15.  If  red  spider  appears,  we  use  a  solution  of  common  salt  and 
water  (a  4-inch  potful  of  salt  to  an  ordinary  bucket  of  water),  and  spray 
the  plants  thoroughly  in  the  morning  of  any  bright,  sunny  day.  Before  this 
practice  is  resorted  to,  all  blooms  must  be  cut  close,  as  the  syringing  will 
make  them  worthless.  We  have  never  had  any  bad  effects  from  the  salt  on 
the  plants,  although  we  have  used  it  strong  enough  to  have  small  crystals  of 
salt  form  upon  them,  after  they  had  become  thoroughly  dry. 

Staking,  or  supporting,  should  be  attended  to  as  soon  as  the  plants  show 
any  signs  of  making  growth,  as  those  supported  in  time  show  a  greater 
advance  than  others  not  supported.  A  delay  of  from  ten  to  fourteen  days 
will  disclose  a  marked  difference. 

After  the  plants  have  thoroughly  recovered,  weeds  will  make  their 
appearance.  These  are  removed  either  by  hand  or  weeder,  as  the  con- 
dition of  the  soil  permits.  If  the  soil  be  hard  or  baked,  we  use  a  weeder; 
if  otherwise,  we  use  our  hands,  stirring  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  half  an 
inch,  or  as  lightly  as  possible,  after  which  a  light  mulching  is  afforded 
to  prevent  any  further  hardening  of  the  top  soil.  Then  we  begin  feeding 
moderately  with  liquid  manure  (this  usually  six  or  eight  weeks  after  lifting). 
About  December  we  give  a  top-dressing  of  dried  blood  and  pure,  finely- 
ground  bonemeal ;  two  parts  of  bone  and  one  of  dried  blood,  using  a  heaping 
handful  between  the  rows,  half-way  across  a  five-foot  bench,  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  surface.  A  similar  dose  is  applied  again  in  April,  followed 
shortly  by  another  light  mulching  of  well-rotted  stable  manure,  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  rapid  evaporation,  which  takes  place  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

Ventilation  is  given  on  cold,  bright  days  during  the  winter  months,  as 
soon  as  the  temperature  is  affected  by  the  sun;  gradually,  as  it  is  necessary, 
reducing  it  with  the  lowering  of  the  temperature.  I  find  it  essential  to  the 
welfare  of  the  plants  to  guard  against  any  sudden  drop,  or  rise,  in  the  temper- 

277 


Carnation  Culture  in  Ohio 


attire,  which  is  sure  to  happen  if  ventilation  is  not  attended  to  on  cold, 
bright,  clear  days ;  in  fact,  at  all  times. 

The  care  and  treatment  from  October  i  to  April  I  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows : 

Gradually  increase  the  quantity  of  liquid  food  until  about  December 
15;  then  afford  less  and  at  longer  intervals  through  mid-winter,  augmenting 
the  quantity  again  when  spring  suns  appear  and  the  plants  are  moving  more 
rapidly.  Guard  against  uneven  night  and  day  temperatures,  which  are 
maintained  48  to  52  degrees  for  night,  six  to  eight  degrees  higher  on  dark 
days,  and  65  to  70  degrees  on  bright  days.  Practice  no  excessive  watering, 
especially  in  cloudy  and  moist  weather;  if  necessary,  frequent  and  light 
watering  is  the  method  preferred.  Ventilation,  even  at  the  expense  of  firing, 
to  change  the  atmosphere  every  twenty-four  hours  is  afforded.  Further 

supports  are  added  promptly  whenever 

necessary. 

RICHARD    WITTERST^ETTER 

Richard  Witterstetter  was  born  at  Sedams- 
ville,  Ohio,  on  November  17,  1859,  where 
he  has  ever  since  resided.  He  began  the 
growing  of  the  carnation  about  1880,  when 
President  Degraw  and  La  Purite  were  the 
only  varieties  he  cultivated.  His  first  work 
at  hybridizing  the  carnation  was  done  in 
1890,  and  although  he  has  raised  thousands 
of  seedlings  his  introductions  have  been  lim- 
ited to  only  four  sorts,  namely,  Emma 
Wocher,  light  pink ;  Evelina,  white ;  Estelle, 
scarlet ;  and  Adonis,  also  scarlet.  The  latter 
variety  was  sold  to  Messrs.  Craig  and  Hill, 
who  are  introducing  it.  Mr.  Witterstaetter  is 
a  very  careful,  painstaking  hybridizer,  and  a 
most  enthusiastic  member  of  The  American 
Carnation  Society,  of  which  he  has  been  the 
vice-president  and  acting  president. 


RICHARD    WITTERST^CTTER 


278 


Carnation  Growing  in  the  South 

BY  W.  R.  SHELMIRE,  ATLANTA,  GA. 

The  average  florist  in  the  North  has  very  little  idea  of  the  changed  con- 
ditions under  which  floriculture  is  carried  on  by  his  Southern  brother.  He 
would  be  surprised  to  know  that,  should  he  change  his  location  for  these 
parts,  his  trade  in  great  measure  would  have  to  be  learned  over  again.  Of 
course,  the  general  principles  are  the  same,  but  to  apply  those  principles 
would  mean  to  him  another  apprenticeship  at  the  business. 

The  most  marked  changes  are  those  of  soil  and  climate.  The  Northern 
man  naturally  expects  to  find  considerable  difference  in  climate,  but  the 
matter  of  soil  will  hardly  occur  to  him,  or  he  will  surmise  that  the  choice  of 
a  suitable  soil  is  merely  a  matter  of  selection.  The  truth  is,  there  is  no  soil 
at  all  here  as  we  understand  that  word  in  the  North,  and,  practically,  there 
is  no  sod  from  which  to  make  greenhouse  compost;  consequently,  the  very 
foundation  of  successful  floriculture  is  apparently  lacking.  The  deficiency 
must  be  made  up  by  the  skillful  manipulation  of  the  material  at  hand,  That 
which  experience  has  taught  us  to  be  the  most  suitable  is  the  red  clay  of  the 
district.  There  is  a  choice  even  in  this,  the  most  desirable  being  of  a  dark 
red  color  and  even  texture,  free  from  stones  and  admixture  of  any  kind.  It 
is  dug  from  the  bank,  the  same  as  brick  clay,  and  to  the  depth  of  several 
feet,  perhaps. 

After  being  thoroughly  broken  up  with  rakes,  this  soil  is  mixed  with 
about  one-quarter  well-rotted  stable  manure  and  what  bone  would  equal 
100  pounds  applied  to  a  I5o-foot  bench.  I  give  the  formula  generally  used, 
but  it  may,  of  course,  vary  to  suit  different  purposes.  This,  when  thoroughly 
mixed,  constitutes  the  "soil"  used  for  carnations,  roses,  etc.  When  placed  on 
the  benches,  this  material  is  packed  hard  by  the  feet,  and  the  plants  well 
firmed  after  planting.  All  potting,  too,  is  done  very  firm.  Experience  has 
taught  that  all  things  do  better  in  the  available  soil  when  thus  well  firmed. 

A  limited  supply  of  green-grass  sod  is  found  in  places,  but  it  has  not 
proved  suitable. 

Bermuda  sod  can  also  be  had  in  quantity,  but  the  roots  are  so  full  of 
vitality  that  it  is  not  possible  to  use  this  grass  in  a  compost.  It  would 
also  grow  on  the  benches  and  prove  very  troublesome. 

Nearly  all  things  thrive  admirably  in  this  red  clay  mixture,  although 
in  the  clay  itself  weeds  will  hardly  grow.  Still,  it  is  more  or  less  of  a 
handicap,  and  requires  cautious  management  and  no  little  skill,  particularly 
in  the  matter  of  watering. 

279 


Carnation  Growing  in  the  South 

Reference  is  not  here  made  to  soils,  agriculturally  speaking.  The 
South  has  abundance  and  to  spare  of  fertile  farm  lands.  But  good  sod  from 
which  to  prepare  the  very  best  soil  for  greenhouse  purposes,  and  which  is 
considered  to  lie  at  the  very  foundation  of  successful  floriculture,  is  cer- 
tainly almost  wholly  lacking  in  this  section  of  the  South,  at  least. 

Climate  I  put  secondary.  There  is  a  long  summer  of  at  least  five 
months,  the  weather  conditions  being  very  similar  to  those  in  July  and 
August  in  the  North.  During  this  period,  if  clear,  the  plants  take  a  good 
deal  of  water  and  daily  syringing,  also  all  the  air  possible  by  top  and  side 
ventilation.  The  glass,  too,  should  be  well  shaded. 

The  winters  are  short.  Freezing  weather  is  experienced  in  December, 
January,  February  and  March ;  1 5  or  20  degrees  is  then  common ;  at  times 
it  is  colder.  During  some  winters,  at  long  intervals,  zero  or  below  is 
reached.  There  is  little  snow,  and  the  ground  does  not  remain  frozen  for 
more  than  a  few  days  at  a  time.  The  weather  changes  are  often  sudden 
and  severe  and  high  winds  are  frequent.  In  fact,  the  winter  is  comparable 
to  the  month  of  March  in  the  Middle  States ;  consequently,  substantial  glass- 
houses are  required,  with  a  good  boiler  capacity. 

For  the  best  results,  it  is  considered  that  Northern-grown  field  plants  are 
preferable.  These  are  usually  planted  in  August.  Plants  are  grown  here 
in  open  ground  only  with  great  difficulty.  The  soil  is  against  the  method  to 
start  with ;  droughts  are  often  severe ;  the  sunshine  is  intense,  and  the  red 
spider,  thrips  and  other  insect  pests  are  persistent,  even  with  frequent  syring- 
ing and  irrigation. 

The  carnation  can  be  propagated  in  the  cool  months  without  difficulty, 
and  grown  indoors  in  pots  perfectly  with  care.  But  grown  either  in  the 
open  ground,  or  indoors  in  pots,  the  cost  is  too  great,  and  the  plants  from 
the  North  are  considered  the  cheaper. 

All  these  remarks  apply  more  particularly  to  the  vicinity  of  Atlanta, 
Georgia,  but  would  also  include  that  large  section  of  the  South  where  the 
red  clay  predominates. 

It  seems  to  me  that  what  the  South  needs  is  to  develop  an  individuality 
in  the  growing  of  greenhouse  products.  Varieties  of  carnations  and  other 
plants  should  be  produced  suitable  to  its  soil,  and  perfectly  acclimated.  The 
glass  structures  should  not  follow  Northern  lines  or  ideas,  but  a  form  should 
be  developed  better  suited  to  the  climate.  These  changes  no  doubt  will  take 
place  in  time. 

280 


Carnation  Culture  in  California 


WARREN  R.  SHELMIRE 

Warren  R.  Shelmire  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1850.     He  removed  to  the  country 

at  the  age  of  nineteen.  In  1884  Mr.  Shel- 
mire started  in  the  florist  business  at  Avon- 
dale,  Pa.,  and  immediately  began  the  growing 
of  carnations,  becoming  very  much  inter- 
ested in  the  obtaining  of  new  seedlings.  His 
success  was  at  the  first  indifferent,  but,  as 
he  puts  it,  "the  lesson  must  be  learned  sooner 
or  later  by  the  seedling  grower,  that  im- 
provement comes  very  slowly  and  the  prizes 
are  few  indeed."  Although  he  placed  upon- 
the  market  several  new  varieties,  he  had  but 
one  real  good  one,  namely,  Eldorado.  This 
variety  was  the  result  of  deliberate  crossings 
along  certain  lines.  The  pollen  of  certain 
kinds  seems  to  be  potent  in  a  definite  direc- 
tion; for  instance,  he  found  in  his  experi- 
ments that  the  pollen  of  Golden  Gate  almost 
invariably  produced  a  yellow  or  yellow 
variegated  flower,  and  at  one  time  he  had 
eighty  or  more  yellow  seedlings  on  trial. 
The  same  seed  pod  that  produced  Eldorado 
also  produced  two  other  very  good  sorts, 
WARREN  R.  SHELMIRE  namely,  Kitty  Clover  and  Eulalie. 


Carnation  Culture  in  California 

BY  JOHN  H.  SIEVERS,  SAN  FRANCISCO. 

Outdoor  culture  of  carnations,  commonly  called  "pinks,"  is  well  under- 
stood in  California,  because  the  plants,  with  us,  are  quite  hardy,  on  account 
of  the  mildness  of  our  climate,  and,  when  properly  cut-back  and  taken  care 
of,  last  in  the  garden  for  a  number  of  years.  These  plants  in  former  days 
were  generally  raised  from  imported  seed;  and  if  any  variety  proved  to  be 
extra  good,  it  was  propagated  by  layers,  or  cuttings.  Before  greenhouse 
culture  of  carnations  was  introduced,  plants  were  raised  in  this  way,  set 
out  in  rows,  and  left  outside  until  the  end  of  November.  Being  then  in 
full  bud,  they  were  taken  up  from  the  ground  and  placed  on  benches  in 
greenhouses,  for  whatever  they  would  yield  in  flowers  for  the  holidays. 

281 


Carnation  Culture  in  California 

This  was  necessary  here,  in  San  Francisco  and  suburbs,  because  when 
we  do  get  a  "norther,"  and  there  is  snow  on  the  Coast  Range,  the  wind 
becomes  quite  cutting,  sufficiently  so  to  shrivel  the  buds  and  make  the 
flowers  unsalable.  In  the  southern  part  of  California,  in  Santa  Barbara, 
Los  Angeles,  and  other  points,  this  does  not  occur;  and,  therefore,  the 
florists  in  that  region  are  able  to  cut  thousands  of  blooms  from  their  fields 
of  carnations  all  winter  through.  True,  these  cannot  compare  with  green- 
house-grown flowers;  but  they  seem  to  find  buyers  and  admirers,  because 
the  florists  continue  to  extend  their  fields  more  and  more  every  year. 
Growers  there  do  not  practice  disbudding,  which,  carried  out  only  in  a 
partial  manner  even,  would  no  doubt  increase  the  size  and  perfection  of 
their  blooms. 

Having  heard  of  the  very  successful  growing  of  carnations  under  glass 
in  the  East,  and  having  received  from  there  such  varieties  as  Buttercup, 
Century,  Heintz's  White,  President  Degraw,  Sunrise,  and  others,  we 
began,  in  1889,  to  hybridize  these  with  a  few  of  our  seedlings  that  were 
grown  from  seed  imported  from  Erfurt,  Germany,  among  which  we  had 
found  some  flowers  of  fine  colors  and  of  fair  size  and  shape.  Seedlings  pro- 
duced by  this,  our  first  attempt  at  hybridization,  were  given  a  touch  of  the 
blood  of  imported  hardy  European  varieties,  to  increase  the  dimensions  of 
the  flowers,  and  with  excellent  results.  Having  in  the  meantime  continued 
to  import  all  the  latest  novelties  in  carnations  from  the  East,  we  followed 
up  our  experiments  with  some  of  them,  and  had  the  satisfaction  to  number, 
in  our  possession,  in  1895,  some  seventy  distinct  varieties  of  greatest  promise. 
Of  these  we  catalogued,  in  1897,  fifty  varieties,  most  of  which  are  yet 
retained  by  us  as  standard  sorts.  It  is  true,  that,  strictly  speaking,  these 
were  not  all  commercial  varieties,  according  to  Eastern  ideas,  because  a 
great  many  were  variegated,  but  they  were  nevertheless  of  large  and  per- 
fect shape,  fragrant,  long-stemmed,  prolific  and  constant  bloomers.  Since 
then,  our  efforts  have  been  more  directed  to  obtaining  self-colored  carnations. 

During  my  visit,  last  spring,  to  several  cities  in  the  East,  I  could  not 
help  noticing  and  admiring  the  superior  construction  of  the  greenhouses 
on  the  large  establishments  there,  in  comparison  with  our  structures.  The 
substantial  foundation,  the  iron  frames  and  supports,  the  excellent  venti- 
lating apparatus,  the  draining  tubes  under  the  beds,  and  such  like,  are 
seldom  met  with  here,  and  then  only  in  private  places.  Perhaps  it  is  not 
quite  so  necessary  in  our  part  of  the  country  to  build  such  solid  houses, 
on  account  of  the  lesser  degrees  of  heat  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter;  but 
from  the  standpoint  of  economy  alone,  it  would  be  wise,  when  one  does 

282 


Carnation   Culture   in  California 


build,  to  build  well;  and  if  one  can't  afford  it,  to  build  less,  otherwise  a 
grower  must  be  prepared  to  rebuild  every  seven  years,  at  least. 

I  find  the  actual  culture  and  treatment  of  carnations  here  about  similar 
to  those  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rockies,  with  the  exception  of  some  dates. 
We  begin  making  our  cuttings  about  January  I ;  planting  from  two  and 
one-half  inch  pots  into  the  open  ground,  in  the  beginning  of  April,  when 
heavy  rains  are  not  expected  any  more.  After  thoroughly  cleaning  and 
whitewashing  the  houses  and  beds,  we  fill  the  latter  with  a  mixture  of  soil, 
as  follows :  To  ten  loads  of  rich  loam  we  add,  according  to  quality,  from 
one  to  two  loads  of  clean  sand,  and  three  loads  of  good  old  cow  manure. 

We  start  planting  in  the  middle  of  July,  and  finish  by  the  end  of  August. 
We  find  it  necessary  to  assist  the  soil  in  the  beds  for  the  first  time  about 
the  middle  of  December;  after  that,  monthly,  by  using  liquid  manure,  and 
alternating  with  nitrate  of  soda. 

In  training  the  flower  shoots,  we  still  adhere  to  the  old  practice  of 
stretching  twine  to  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  beds,  attached  to  wires,  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  wire  frames  used  in  the  East. 

Starting  with  healthy  plants ;  exercising  cleanliness,  affording  plenty 
of  fresh  air,  and  not  too  much  water  during  dull  weather,  maintaining  about 
fifty  degrees  of  temperature  at  night,  will  keep  carnations  healthy  in  Cal- 
ifornia, and,  I  suppose,  almost  anywhere. 


JOHN  H.   SIEVERS 

John  H.  Sievers,  of  San  Francisco,  was 
born  in  the  city  of  Bremen,  Germany,  on 
October  31,  1837.  After  receiving  his  edu- 
cation he  engaged  in  the  mercantile  business, 
and  was  clerk  for  two  years  in  a  large  bank- 
ing house.  In  1857  Mr.  Sievers  started  from 
Hamburg,  per  clipper  "Virginia,"  round  Cape 
Horn  for  San  Francisco,  arriving  there  De- 
cember 25.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining  a 
position  as  bookkeeper  in  a  large  French  im- 
porting house.  In  1861  he  went  as  super- 
cargo to  Manila,  returning  by  the  same  vessel 
after  a  sojourn  of  four  months.  After  sev- 
eral ventures  in  mining  properties,  without 
much  success,  he  took  a  position  as  book- 
keeper in  the  Golden  Gate  Flour  Mills. 

Mr.  Sievers'  love  for  flowers  developed  in 
his  early  youth,  being  heightened  by  a  well- 
kept  garden  and  nice  collection  of  window 

283 


JOHN  H.  SIEVERS 


Carnation  Culture  in  Canada 

plants  at  his  boyhood  home.  After  coming  to  San  Francisco  he  gratified  his  taste  for 
flowers,  trees  and  shrubs,  and  built  a  greenhouse  in  his  garden.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1871  he  concluded  to  associate  himself  in  business  as  a  florist  with  Mr.  F.  A.  Miller. 
a  practical  gardener,  still  retaining  his  position  at  the  flour  mills.  Subsequently,  the 
latter  position  was  abandoned,  and  his  entire  time  devoted  to  the  florist  and  nursery 
trade.  In  1875,  the  eventful  and  rather  disastrous  year  for  San  Francisco,  when  the 
Bank  of  San  Francisco  failed,  Mr.  Sievers  was  in  the  Hawaii  Islands  superintending 
the  removal  of  a  large  number  of  royal  and  other  varieties  of  palms,  crotons,  tree 
ferns,  etc.,  for  which  quite  a  demand  had  been  created ;  but  when  he  reached  port  with 
a  whole  deckload  of  magnificent  plants  in  boxes,  the  financial  conditions  were  so 
demoralizing  that  sales  were  out  of  the  question  and  credit  impossible,  necessitating 
a  new  start  in  business,  with  more  or  less  success  at  the  beginning,  but  which  has 
ultimately  culminated  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner,  as  is  now  pretty  generally 
known. 


Carnation  Culture  in   Canada 

BY  JOHN  H.  DUNLOP,  TORONTO 

There  is  no  commercial  flower  cultivated  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
that  has  made  as  great  progress  toward  general  popularity,  during  the  past 
ten  years,  as  the  carnation. 

As  I  am  writing  particularly  of  the  progress  made  in  Canadian  carna- 
tion culture,  I  will  ask  my  readers  to  consider  for  a  moment  the  varieties 
grown  twelve  or  fourteen  years  ago,  when  the  area  of  glass  devoted 
to  the  growing  of  carnations  was  very  limited.  The  varieties  then  culti- 
vated, as  I  now  remember,  were  President  Degraw,  La  Purite,  Mrs.  Car- 
negie, and  Crimson  King.  I  can  remember  a  bench  of  the  Crimson  King, 
which  was  growing  remarkably  well,  about  fourteen  years  ago.  This  bench, 
but  forty  feet  in  length  by  five  feet  in  width,  produced  more  than  sufficient 
flowers  of  its  particular  color  to  supply  the  demand  in  Toronto;  in  fact, 
the  blooms  were  frequently  offered  at  $1.00  per  100,  and  the  average  whole- 
sale price  of  carnations  during  the  holidays  and  through  the  winter  was 
but  the  modest  sum  of  $1.50  per  100.  As  the  Divine  Flower  was  receiving 
more  attention  from  the  florists  of  the  United  States  and  a  few  firms  had 
branched  out  as  carnation  specialists,  and  devoted  their  entire  establishments 
to  the  culture  of  this  flower,  and  were  producing  blooms  showing  marked 
improvement  over  the  ordinary  commercial  varieties  grown  at  that  time, 
the  possibilities  of  carnation  culture  began  to  be  realized.  Who  will  fail 
to  remember  with  what  delight  we  viewed  the  first  blooms  of  the  varieties 

284 


Carnation  Culture  in  Canada 

Daybreak,  J.  J.  Harrison,  Silver  Spray,  and  the  other  novelties  of  that 
period?  At  that  time  John  Thorpe,  who  could  see  farther  into  the  future 
of  American  carnation  culture  than  the  majority  of  us,  and  who  realized 
the  great  possibilities  of  this  flower,  prophesied  the  production  of  four-inch 
carnation  blooms — a  prophecy  which  was  ridiculed  and  made  light  of  by 
some. 

The  Canadian  growers  were  then  beginning  to  devote  more  attention 
to  the  carnation,  and  gradually  increasing  their  plantings,  buying  of  the 
new  varieties  more  conservatively  than  their  brothers  in  the  craft  of  the 
United  States — a  conservatism  in  which  the  Canadian  florist  still  persists, 
refusing  to  part  with  a  tried  variety  for  a  new  one  until  he  is  thoroughly 
satisfied  that  the  newer  candidate  is  worthy  of  succeeding  the  old.  This 
condition  has  been  largely  brought  about  by  the  number  of  worthless  varie- 
ties disseminated  in  the  early  history  of  placing  new  seedling  carnations 
upon  the  market.  These  frequently  looked  well  from  the  illustrations,  and 
came  highly  recommended  from  the  introducers,  but  they  proved  of  little 
value  after  a  year's  trial.  The  small  demand  resulting  from  the  above  cited 
experience  has  been  largely  overcome,  and  confidence  regained  by  the  evi- 
dent care  exercised  by  the  modern  producer  in  sending  out  new  varieties, 
which  are  now,  generally,  the  result  of  years  of  careful  selection  and  cross- 
ing, giving  us  thereby  a  strain  of  free  blooming,  stiff  stemmed,  large  flowers. 

The  American  Carnation  Society  has  done  more  to  stimulate  the  present 
interest  in  carnation  growing  than  any  other  agency  that  I  know  of.  Its 
annual  convention  held  in  connection  with  its  splendid  exhibition  of  the  best 
products  grown  upon  the  American  continent,  cannot  help  but  educate  and 
stimulate  the  grower  to  attain  a  higher  standard,  and  the  valuable  and  highly 
instructive  essays  prepared  by  the  best  minds  in  the  profession,  all  tend  to 
the  same  end. 

The  past  five  years  an  annual  carnation  meeting  has  been  held  in 
Toronto  during  the  first  week  in  March,  where  the  growers  from  surround- 
ing cities  and  distant  points  exhibit  their  best  products,  and  also  come  to 
see  the  new  varieties  that  are  to  be  disseminated  during  the  season.  These 
meetings  have  proved  highly  beneficial,  and  have  served  as  efficient 
educators,  by  providing  a  means  of  comparing  the  standard  varieties  grown 
in  different  localities  with  the  newer  candidates  for  favor,  and  have  ma- 
terially aided  in  the  dissemination  of  the  new  varieties. 

Statistics  compiled  as  completely  as  it  is  possible  with  the  material  at 
my  command,  show  that  there  are  about  450,000  carnation  plants  now 
grown  in  Canada  under  about  550,000  feet  of  glass,  which  statement  will 

285 


Carnation  Culture  in  Canada 

give  an  idea  of  the  growth  that  has  taken  place  since  the  small  beginning 
of  twelve  years  ago. 

The  type  of  house  devoted  to  carnation  culture  in  the  Dominion  has 
not  been  overlooked.  In  the  early  days  of  the  industry  any  house  was  con- 
sidered good  enough  for  this  plant,  the  prevailing  idea  appearing  to  be  to 
get  as  much  timber  and  as  little  light  as  possible.  This  ancient  type  of  house 
has  gradually  given  away  to  improved  structures,  until  to-day  we  have  the 
iron  frame,  the  wide  glass,  insuring  all  the  light  possible,  with  a  minimum 
of  shade.  What  is  the  result?  The  finest  blooms  are  now  grown  to  the 
greatest  perfection  and  sell  at  prices  four  to  five  times  higher  than  were 
obtained  ten  years  ago.  And  the  end  is  not  yet;  for,  if  the  present  ratio  of 
increase  is  maintained,  the  estimated  area  of  glass  devoted  to  carnation 
culture  should  be  doubled  in  the  next  five  years,  with  attendant  increase  of 
production. 

The  Canadian  grower  has  as  yet  produced  but  few  new  varieties. 
That  work  is  carried  on  extensively  and  successfully  by  specialists  in  the 
United  States,  and  few  of  our  florists  have  had  the  time  or  patience  to 
pursue  hybridizing  to  any  extent.  But  the  Canadian  florist  is  fully  alive 
to  the  popularity  of  the  Divine  Flower,  and  will  in  future  devote  more  time 
and  money  in  order  to  produce  the  best  results  in  its  culture;  and  in  the 
coming  years  he  may  be  in  a  position  to  compete  for  the  coveted  honor  of 
originating  and  introducing  new  and  meritorious  varieties  of  this  popular 
flower. 

A  few  words  as  to  the  cultivation  of  the  carnation  in  Canada :  One 
of  the  most  important  features  of  the  season's  success  depends  on  the  care 
exercised  in  the  selection  of  cuttings,  and  the  propagating  bed.  Our  first 
batch  of  cuttings  is  taken  when  the  first  crop  of  bloom  is  maturing,  and 
the  plants  are  growing  vigorously,  usually  from  the  loth  to  the  I5th  of 
December.  These  cuttings  we  take  from  blooming  stems,  previous  to  the 
holiday  crop  being  picked,  and  similar  cuttings  throughout  the  season; 
otherwise  they  would  be  sacrificed. 

Our  propagating  house  has  been  located  on  the  north  side  of  a  three- 
quarter  span  house,  with  northern  aspect,  which  answered  the  purpose 
admirably;  but  this  year  our  new  propagating  houses  run  north  and  south. 
These  are  composed  of  a  double  ridge  and  furrow  house,  without  partition, 
each  compartment  nine  feet  in  width,  which  gives  us  a  house  eighteen  feet 
wide,  with  two  benches  three  feet  six  inches  wide,  one  center  bench  seven  feet 

286 


Carnation  Culture  in  Canada 

wide,  and  two  walks  two  feet  wide.  This  makes  an  economical  house,  very 
handy  for  working  in.  The  benches  are  framed  to  carry  roofing  slate  for  bot- 
toms. This  we  cover  with  soft  brick  laid  on  flat.  On  this  we  place  the  sand 
firmed  to  about  two  inches  in  depth.  This  bench  gives  a  very  gentle  and 
uniform  temperature  in  the  sand,  retaining  the  heat  longer.  One  of  its 
most  noticeable  features  is,  that  the  sand  remains  sweet  longer  (the  one 
batch  can  be  used  several  times),  an  entire  absence  of  fungus,  and  the 
most  satisfactory  results  as  far  as  strong,  well-rooted  cuttings  are  con- 
cerned. The  temperature  we  aim  to  maintain  is,  for  the  sand  fifty  degrees, 
and  for  the  house  about  three  to  five  degrees  lower. 

The  cuttings  when  rooted  are  removed  to  another  house,  generally 
one  that  has  been  cleared  after  a  crop  of  chrysanthemums  has  been  produced. 
The  cuttings  are  dibbled  in  soil  that  is  two  inches  in  depth.  This  house  we 
shade  with  cotton,  tacked  on  the  inside  of  the  bars  on  the  south  side  of  the 
house,  which  shading  is  removed  after  the  cuttings  will  stand  the  full  sun- 
light, say  in  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  This  allows  free  circulation  of  air; 
and  the  cuttings  will  take  hold  of  the  soil  more  quickly  and  grow  stronger 
than  when  the  shading  is  placed  close  to  the  cuttings,  as  is  frequently  done. 

For  our  stock  for  indoor  planting  we  pot  the  cuttings  that  have  been 
in  the  soil  from  eight  to  ten  weeks,  into  three-inch  pots.  These  are  planted 
in  a  house  about  the  first  week  in  June.  We  use  no  shading  on  the  house, 
but  keep  the  ventilators  open  and  the  house  as  cool  as  possible  by  frequent 
syringing. 

Field  planting  begins  about  the  I5th  of  May,  as  the  weather  in  this 
section  is  too  changeable  to  permit  of  earlier  planting. 

The  soil  around  the  cuttings  on  the  bench  is  cut  in  squares  and  these 
are  taken  in  trays  to  the  field,  where  beds  are  prepared  for  the  young  stock. 
A  good  firming  of  the  soil  around  the  plants  at  the  time  of  planting  is  all 
that  is  necessary,  with  hoeing  and  cleaning  during  the  time  the  plants  are  in 
the  field,  and  pinching  as  soon  as  required. 

The  removal  of  the  plants  from  the  field  to  the  house  begins  about 
the  first  week  in  August.  The  benches  having  been  cleared  out,  thoroughly 
coated  with  hot  lime  and  filled  with  fresh  soil,  are  ready  to  receive  the 
new  plants,  which  are  lifted  carefully,  with  very  little  soil  adhering  to 
the  roots.  No  time  is  lost  in  planting  into  permanent  quarters. 

We  usually  shade  with  a  mud  wash,  which  will  remain  on  the  glass 
long  enough  to  give  the  plants  a  chance  to  take  hold  of  the  soil.  I  do  not 

287 


Carnation  Culture  in  Canada 

think   it  advisable  to  allow  the  shade  to  remain  on   too   long,   about  two 
weeks  at  most  being  sufficient. 


JOHN  H.   DUNLOP 

The  subject  of  this  sketch  was  born  in  New  York  City  on  January  7,  1855. 
He  comes  of  Irish  parentage.  When  he  was  seven  years  of  age  his  parents 
removed  to  Toronto,  Ont.,  where,  while  yet  a  lad,  he  spent  two  years  in  the  book 
business,  afterward  returning  -  to  New  York,  where  he  worked  for  some  time  as 
a  carpenter.  In  1875  he  returned  to  and  finally  settled  in  Toronto,  leasing  a  news- 
stand and  telegraph  office  from  the  Queen's  Hotel.  Up  to  this  period  he  pos- 
sessed no  practical  knowledge  of  floriculture,  but  during  quiet  afternoons  such 
books  and  papers  as  gave  any  instruction  on  the  subject,  and  upon  rose  grow- 
ing in  particular,  were  eagerly  studied 

Having  become  acquainted  with  the 
theory  of  rose  growing,  he  made  his 
first  venture  as  a  florist  by  building  a 
modest  structure,  of  a  size  6x12  feet,  in 
1880.  This  was  doubled  during  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  the  year  thereafter  a 
house,  8x50  feet,  was  built.  This  again, 
the  succeeding  year,  gave  place  to  a  more 
modern  structure,  12x50  feet,  of  the 
type  known  as  the  three-quarter  span 
house.  As  the  demand  for  choice  roses 
was  increasing,  a  large  piece  of  ground 
was  purchased  on  Lansdowne  Avenue, 
near  Bloor  Street,  where  his  present  es- 
tablishment now  stands. 

In  1885  Mr.  Dunlop  first  forced  the  lily  of 
the  valley,  which  was  considered  quite  a  feat 
at  that  time.  He  also  was  the  first  to  adopt 
the  use  of  raised  benches  for  the  winter 
forcing  of  roses,  which  system  has  now  su- 
perseded the  old  solid  bed. 

Mr.  Dunlop  has  always  taken  a  lively 
interest  in  carnations,  testing  all  the  new 
varieties  that  are  exhibited  at  the  annual 
conventions  of  the  American  Carnation 

Society.  The  yearly  display  of  carnations  at  Toronto  is  due  to  Mr.  Dunlop's 
initiative.  He  is  an  active  member  of  the  American  Carnation  Society,  and  has 
been  president  of  the  Canadian  Horticultural  Society,  as  well  as  its  first  secretary. 
He  has  been  a  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Florists  for  a  number  of  years, 
and  has  served  upon  its  Executive  Committee.  He  has  also  acted  as  president  of 
the  Toronto  Gardeners  and  Florists'  Association,  and  it  was  due  to  his  call  for  a 
meeting  that  the  association  was  formed. 

288 


JOHN  H.  DUNLOP 


Pioneer  American   Carnationists 


CHARLES  ZELLER 

Charles  Zeller,  one  of  the  earliest  beginners  in  the  growing  of  seedling  carnations 
in  America,  was  born  seventy-five  years  ago  at  Lanzer,  Department  Haut-Rhin,  Alsace, 

France,  near  Basle,  Switzerland.  In  1841  he 
went  to  his  uncle,  located  at  Basle,  to  learn 
the  florist's  business,  but  in  a  short  time  dis- 
covered that  he  could  not  there  acquire 
everything  according  to  his  wishes.  He 
then  resolved  to  engage  for  a  term  of  three 
years  with  Mr.  Henry  Fisher  in  Freidbourg, 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  Germany,  where  he 
had  an  opportunity  of  learning  florist,  nur- 
sery, landscape  and  vegetable  work.  In  1844 
he  returned  to  Basle,  and  for  some  time  was 
employed  by  Mr.  Hammerlin,  superinten- 
dent of  the  Botanic  Garden.  In  1847  Mr. 
Zeller  went  to  Paris,  France,  to  get  better 
acquainted  with  his  mother  tongue  before 
he  should  be  drafted  as  a  soldier.  Fortu- 
nately, he  was  exempted  from  military  ser- 
vice by  drawing  the  second  highest  number. 
He  remained  in  Paris  for  some  time,  work- 
ing as  a  florist,  landscape  and  vegetable 
gardener.  Becoming  disgusted  with  Paris- 
ian life,  through  the  Revolution,  he  emi- 
grated to  America,  landing  in  New  York  on 

CHARLES    ZELLER  October  28,  1851,  "full  of  inspiration"  as  he 

says,  when  he  "got  the  first  glimpse  of  the  noble  flag,  the  emblem  of  Liberty  and 
Prosperity."  He  was  then  twenty-one  years  of  age.  It  was  a  great  disappointment 
to  him  that  he  could  get  no  work  in  his  own  line  of  business,  and  for  the  winter  sea- 
son he  secured  employment  on  the  Hudson  River  Railroad,  where,  to  use  his  own 
words,  he  "labored  with  a  squad  of  twenty-two  Irishmen,  working  with  my  spade ; 
and  when  they  found  out  I  could  use  a  shovel,  crowbar  and  pickaxe  as  well  as  the  rest 
of  them,  they  became  my  friends." 

With  no  regrets  Mr.  Zeller  quitted  this  occupation  in  the  spring  of  1852,  and 
obtained  a  situation  with  Mateo  Donati,  florist,  at  Bloomingdale,  N.  Y.  He  later 
went  to  work  for  Mr.  Mantell,  of  the  same  place,  and  subsequently  for  Mr.  Rinney,  of 
Lodi,  N.  J.,  where  in  doing  some  landscaping  he  became  acquainted  with  Mr. 
John  Dailledouze,  with  whom  he  formed  a  lasting  friendship.  Together  they  concluded 
to  rent  a  place  and  go  into  business  at  Flatbush,  N.  Y.  After  a  period  of  three 
years  another  partner  was  added,  and  the  firm  became  Dailledouze,  Zeller  &  Gard. 
It  continued  for  fifteen  years,  when  it  was  dissolved,  each  of  the  partners  remaining 
in  business  for  himself  in  separate  establishments. 

Mr.  Zeller,  who  throughout  all  his  career  has  been  a  hard-working  member  of 
the  craft,  lost  his  father  and  mother  when  he  was  very  young,  and  received  a  schooling 
of  only  two  years ;  but  he  never  missed  an  opportunity  of  obtaining  knowledge.  He 

289 


Pioneer   American   Carnationists 

took  for  his  motto  the  words  inscribed  on  the  monument  of  Charles  Lambert,  located 
behind  the  Protestant  Church  at  Milhouse,  which  inscription  told  how  the  great 
astronomer  became  famous  "by  perseverance  for  those  for  whom  he  was  doing  a  ser- 
vice." There  was  no  greater  recompense  for  him  than  to  receive  a  candle  to  provide 
light  in  his  room,  that  he  might  pursue  his  studies.  "This,"  continues  Mr.  Zeller,  "I 
preserved  as  my  example." 


JOHN   DAILLEDOUZE 

John  Dailledouze,  of  Flatbush,  New  York,  was  born  January  i,  1828,  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland.     He  received  his  early  training  as  a  florist  in  the  nurseries  of  his  father 

located  there.  In  1849  Mr.  Dailledouze 
emigrated  to  America,  landing  at  New  Or- 
leans, where  he  worked  at  the  florist  and  nur- 
sery business  until  1858,  when,  with  Charles 
Zeller,  he  formed  a  copartnership  and  es- 
tablished a  business  in  Flatbush,  N.  Y.  Sub- 
sequently Mr.  Joseph  Card  was  added  to  the 
concern.  The  firm  was  dissolved  in  1868. 
Mr.  Dailledouze  continued  to  operate  the 
greenhouses  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
in  1882.  The  business  was  subsequently 
carried  on  by  his  widow  until  1892,  when  the 
firm  became  Dailledouze  Brothers,  being 
composed  of  Messrs.  Eugene,  Paul  and 
Henry  Dailledouze,  who  have  since  devel- 
oped the  business  into  one  of  large  propor- 
tions, making  a  special  feature  of  the  carna- 
tion. 

Among  the  varieties  introduced  into  com- 
merce by  this     firm  are    Prosperity,   Alice 
JOHN  DAILLEDOUZE  Roosevelt,  and  Bouton  d'Or. 


290 


INDEX 


Subjects  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  Illustrations. 


Alegatiere,    Alphonse,    work    of 21 

America,    carnation   in 31 

American   carnations    in   Europe 37 

American    carnations,    introduction    of     21 
American   carnations,    nomenclature 

251-256 
American    Carnation    Society,    annual 

report    of    250 

American  Carnation  Society,  first  ex- 
hibition  of    248 

American    Carnation    Society,    history 

of    247 

American    Carnation    Society,    list    of 

essays    read   before    249 

American  classification  of,  suggested.  219 
Ammoniacal  solution   of   carbonate  of 

copper    136,  137 

Amount  of  glass  devoted  to  culture . .     32 

Anthracite    187 

Arthur,    Prof.    J.    C.,    quoted 68 

Artistic    decoration*     32 

As  a  florist's  flower,  first  introduction    19 
Ashes,    coal,    use   of   in  propagating. .     79 
Ashes,   hardwood,   use  of  in  prepara- 
tion   of    soil    51 

Ashes,    wood     66 

Aspect  of  forcing  houses   154 

Bacteriosis*     142 

Bearer,  iron,  for  sub- irrigation  bench*  165 

Beauties,   some   royal* 205 

Bedding  varieties    190 

Beds,    solid*    163 

Bench    construction    161 

Bench,    end    of   wooden* 162 

Bench,    marking  out   the    105 

Bench,    ordinary    wooden    161 

Bench,    propagating,    construction    of.     77 

Bench,    setting    plants    on    the* 109 

Bench,    sub-irrigation     164 

Bench,   sub-irrigation,   construction  of  165 
Bench,     sub -irrigation,     cross    section 

of*    166 

Bench,    sub-irrigation,    ready    for    ce- 
menting*        167 

Bench,    sub-irrigation,    section    of*...   173 
Bench,    sub -irrigation     showing    terra 

cotta    foundation*    175 

Bench,   ventilated   tile    164 


PAGE 

Benches,    cement    166 

Benches,    cultivation    of    soil    in 46 

Benches,   draining   116 

Benches,   filling   41,  102 

Benches,     planting    on     43 

Benches,  sub-irrigation,  built  on  slop- 
ing   ground*     168 

Benches,  sub- irrigation,  testing  tanks*  171 

Benching    41 

Bizarre  carnation,    English*    23 

Bizarre    seedlings*    208,209 

Bizarres     218 

Blooms,  case  of.  packed  for  shipment*  123 

Boiler,    firebox  or  locomotive 179 

Boilers,  horizontal  tubular  179 

Boilers,    sectional    178 

Boilers,  steam,  types  of  186 

Bordeaux    Mixture    for    rust    136 

Branch    rot     139 

Buds,    normal   and   abnormal* 69 

Building,    disposition    of    houses 156 

Bunch  of  carnations  with  name  tag*  121 

California  carnation  field,  a* 36 

California,    culture    in    281 

Calyces,    types   of  good*    200 

Calyx,  a  bursted*   202 

Canada,    culture    in    284 

Canadian    ranges,    Dunlop    and    Dale 

Estate*     152,  153 

Carnation    Belt,    the    36 

Cement,     Portland     166 

Checking    in    the    field,    deleterious...     97 

Chitty,  H.   E..  work  of   28 

Classifications,   French,   English,   sug- 
gested  American    218 

Coal,   bituminous    187 

Cocoanut  fiber,  use  of  in  propagating    79 

Coke     188 

Color  230 

Color,  classification  by  219 

Composts,  old  English 54 

Construction,    bench    161 

Construction  of  houses   157 

Cottage  Gardens  Range*    35 

Cottage  Gardens  Range  in  a  blizzard*  220 
Criterion  of  perfect  flower  in  1830....     22 

Cross-breeding   196 

Crude  petroleum    188 


291 


Index 


PAGE 

Cultivation  after  planting   97 

Cultivation,  clean,  imperative  in  sum- 
mer   time    100 

Culture,    field    94 

Culture    in   California    281 

Culture  in  Canada   284 

Culture    in    different   localities 257 

Culture   in  Lafayette,   Ind 257 

Culture    in    Massachusetts    260 

Culture   in  Ohio    274 

Culture    in    Richmond,    Ind 266 

Culture  in  the  mountains   270 

Culture,    necessity    of   good   and   rich, 

Hogg's  maxims   60 

Cutting  back    40 

Cutting  back  in  field,  time  to  cease..     99 
Cuttings,  desirable  and  undesirable*..     72 

Cuttings,  for  pot  culture   194 

Cuttings,    method   of  preparing 80 

Cuttings,  packing  for  shipment 84 

Cuttings,    propagating   from    38 

Cuttings,  putting  in  the  sand  bench. . .     81 

Cuttings,  selecting 73 

Dailledouze  Bros.,    establishment  of*.     33 
Dailledouze,  John,  biographical  sketch 

(Portrait)    290 

Dailledouze  &  Zeller,   early  catalogue 

of    22 

Dailledouze,   Zeller   &  Card    21 

Dalmais,    work    of    21 

Dean,    R. ,    quoted    85 

Derivation   of   name    17 

Britten  and  Holland  quoted 18 

Chaucer    quoted     18 

Drayton   quoted    18 

Gerarde    quoted    18,     19 

Prior,   Dr.,   quoted    18 

Shakespeare    quoted    18 

Spencer  quoted  18 

Stevens    quoted    18 

Theophrastus  quoted  19 

Turner   quoted    18 

Development,   history  of  its 21 

Digging  plants  from  field.... 43,   105,   106* 

Disbudding    48,  116 

Diseased  plant,  propagating  from  a..     73 

Diseases     48 

Diseases   and   injuries    134 

Diseases,    bibliography   of    143 

Dees  it  pay  to  do  things  well? 238 

Donati,    work   of    22 

Don's    Gardener's    Dictionary    quoted.     22 

Dorner,    Fredk.,    work   of    28 

Dorner,    Fredk.,    biographical    sketch 

(Portrait)    259 

Dorner,    Fredk.,    Method    of    growing 

new  varieties    216 

Draining   benches    116 


PAGE 
Dunlop,   John  H.,   biographical  sketch 

(Portrait)    288 

Enchantress*    101 

Enchantress,    house    of*     156 

English   Bizarre   carnation* 23 

English  blood  in  American  carnations    25 

English   classification    218 

English    method    of   preparing   soil 41 

Essays,    read    before    American    Car- 
nation   Society    249 

Establishment   of   Dailledouze   Bros.*.     33 
Establishment    of    J.    D.    Thompson 

Carn.    Co.*     37 

Evaporating  pan — Lonsdale    83 

Exhibition,   American  Carnation  Soci- 

•    ety's    first    248 

Fairy  ring  spot   138 

Falconer,    Wm.,    quoted    134 

Fancies     218 

Fancy  varieties*    211 

Feeding  benched  plants    47 

Fenn,    Harry,   house   of* 223 

Fertility,    what    becomes    of    our?....     61 

Fertilizers    and    manures    61 

Fertilizers,   book  on,   by  Voorhees 62 

Fertilizers,    commercial,    used   in  field 

or  bench  culture  53 

Fertilizers,    prices    of    64,    65,  66 

Fertilizing    196 

Field    culture    94 

Field  method  of  preparing  soil 41 

Field,   planting  from  the    102 

Field,  planting  in  the  40 

Field   plants   ready  for  lifting* 104 

Field,   preparing,   for  horse  culture...     95 

Field  soils,   preparing   40 

Field,   ten  minutes  after  digging  was 

commenced*    107 

Fire-clay  for  shading 44,  110 

Fisher,   Peter,   work  of   29 

Fisher,    Peter,    biographical    sketch 

(Portrait)    265 

Fisher,    Sewell,   work  of    27 

Flakes    218 

Flamands    218 

Flats    89 

Flower  room,   a  wholesale  grower's*.  119 

Flowers,    bunching    120 

Flowers,   cutting,  •  method  of 120 

Flowers,    grading    120 

Flowers,  picking,  packing  and  shipping  118 
Flowers,    proper   labeling  of  boxes ...  124 

Flowers,    shipping    118 

Flowers,    shipping,    box   method 122 

Flowers,    shipping,   bunch  method 122 

Flowers,  shipping,   in  cold  weather...  125 

Flowers,   time   to  cut 117 

Flowers,   treatment  of.  after  cutting.  121 


292 


Index 


Forcing   houses    148 

Forcing  houses,  aspect  of  154 

Forcing  houses,  size  of  glass  for   154 

Form    230 

Fragrance    230 

Freak    flowers*     207 

French    classification    218 

Frost,    injuries    from    92 

Fuels    18V 

Fumigation    48 

Fungus   following  heavy   rainfalls 108 

Fusarium    leaf-spot*    140 

Future  of  the  carnation  232 

Gardeners'  Magazine  of  Botany,  quot- 
ed    226 

Gillyflower  18,     19 

Glass,   planting  under   107 

Glass,  size  of,   for  forcing  houses 154 

Glenny,  George,  quoted   226 

Governor  Roosevelt*    26 

Governor  Roosevelt,  bench  of* 46 

Governor  Roosevelt,   houses  of*.... 42,     45 

Grading  flowers    120 

Green  fly   127 

Greenhouse    culture— general    38 

Greenhouse  culture,  preparation  of  soil 

for  41 

Greenhouse  heating  ...  /j 177 

Greenhouse   structure,   requisites  in..  157 

Grenadines    218 

Growing  in   the   South    279 

Habit    231 

Habits  should  be   studied    47 

Hardy   carnations    191 

Header*   57 

Heating,  greenhouse   177 

Heating,   hot  water   systems    177 

Heating,  hot  water  closed  or  Perkins 

method  180 

Heating,  hot  wate  open  expansion  tank 

method   177 

Heating,  hot  water  pressure  method.  178 
Heating,  hot  water  pump  method....  180 

Heating,   single  pipe  method    186 

Heating,   steam  systems  of  182 

Heating,   steam  gravity  method    182 

Heating,  steam  positive  return  meth- 
od      183 

Heating,  steam  pump  exhaust  185 

Heating,   steam  vacuum  method    185 

Heintz,   Rudolph,   work  of   25 

Hill,    E.    G.,    work   of    29 

Hill,  E.  G.,  biographical  sketch  (Por- 
trait)       269 

Hogg,    Thos.,    quoted    24,60 

Hogg,  Thos.,   formula  for  preparation 

of   soil    54 

Horse   culture,   preparing  field   for....     95 
Hot  water  heating  systems   177 


House,  interior  view  of — Hitchings* . .  155 
House,  section  of  %  span— Hitchings*  149 
House,  section  showing  latest  type  of 

— Lord   &  Burnham*    151 

House,  type  of  U-bar  semi-curvilinear 

roofed— Pierson-Sefton   Co.*    160 

Houses,    construction    of    157 

Houses,     forcing     148 

Houses,    types    of    150 

Hovey's    Magazine,    1862,    quoted    20 

Hybridization    196 

Hybridizing    tools*    197,  198 

Ideal    Carnation,    the     226 

Ideal   flower,   attributes  of    227 

Injuries  and  diseases    134 

Insects    and    fumigation    48 

Insects    and   preventives    127 

Introducing   new   varieties   into   com- 
merce      212 

Introduction  into  America  as  a  garden 

plant    20 

Introduction    into    Great   Britain    17 

Iron  framework  for  houses    157 

Iron  U-bar  construction,  new  galvan- 
ized      159 

Kedzie,  Professor,  quoted  63 

Lafayette,  Ind.,  culture  in  257 

Layering,   propagation  by    85 

Lifting  and   planting  from   the   field..  102 

Lifting,   early  versus  late   42 

Like   produces   like    71 

Lime    47 

Lime,  use  of,  in  preparation  of  soil...     51 

Liquid    manures,    formulae    for 66,  67 

Locations  of  large  establishments   ...     34 

Long  Island,    development  on    22 

Maddock's  formula  for  preparation  of 

soil     54 

Manure,  Boomer  method  of  making. .     70 

Manure,    sheep    47 

Manure,    stable    52 

Manure,   water   47 

Manures,   and    fertilizers     61 

Manures,  liquid,  formulae  for   66 

Manures,    natural    69 

Marc,   Charles    21 

Massachusetts,  culture  in  260 

McGowan.   John,  work  of    28 

Medicinal  properties    •  •     18 

Monthly  calendar  of  operations    240 

Moss,    sphagnum,    use   of,    in   packing 

cuttings    84 

Moss,  sphagnum,  use  of,  in  propagat- 
ing         79 

Mountains,   culture   in  the    270 

National    Carnation   and    Picotee    So- 
ciety of  England   20 

Natural    manures    69 


293 


Index 


PAGE 

New    varieties,     growing    of,     Dorner 

method   216 

New  varieties,   introducing  into  com- 
merce   212 

Nicoticide    195 

Nitrogen   63 

Nitrogen,  sources  of   64 

Nomenclature,  American  carnation  251-256 
Number  of  plants   grown  annually...     34 

Number  of  years   in  cultivation 19 

Ohio,    culture    in    274 

Oil,   fuel   188 

Operations,    monthly   calendar  of 239 

Origin  and  early  history   17 

Overfeeding,    results    of    68 

Packing    and    shipping    field-grown 

plants   144 

Packing  cuttings  for  shipment 84 

Paint,    Princess    metallic 163,  169 

Peculiarities  and  traits   221 

Pepper,  red   l 127 

Perfection   in   carnations    230 

Phosphoric  acid   64 

Picking,  packing  and  shipping  flowers  118 

Picotees    218 

Picotees,  perfect*  227,  228 

Pinching  back  young  plants    90 

Plant,    young,    ready    for   shifting* ...     90 

Planting,    cultivation    after     97 

Planting  in  the  field 40,  94,     96 

Planting  on  benches   43 

Planting  in  the  field,  plants  ready  for*    91 
Planting  out  young  stock,    treatment 

preparatory   to    87 

Planting  under  glass   107 

Plants,    benched,    feeding    47 

Plants,  carrying  to  greenhouse* 30 

Plants,    digging    from    field    43,  105 

Plants,  field-grown,  packing  and  ship- 
ping       144 

Plants,    field-grown,    time    to   dig 144 

Plants,  field-grown,  treatment  of,  af- 
ter long  shipment    146 

Plants,  raising  from  seed    38 

Plants,    stopping  in   the   field    98 

Plants,  young,   time  to  put  in  field . .     92 
Plants,  young,  turning  out  of  pots...     95 

Plat,   Sir  Hugh,  quoted   226 

Ploughing    41,  52 

Plow.    Firefly   Hand    94 

Posts    161 

Potash  65 

Pot  culture,   carnations   for   191 

Pot  culture,    compost   for    194 

Pot   culture,    cuttings  for    194 

Pot    culture,    Hogg    on    191 

Pot    culture,    top-dressing    193 

Potting   87 

Potting   young    stock    39 


PAGE 

Preventives    of   insects    127 

Prices  of  cut  flowers    34 

Prices  of  fertilizers   64,  65,  66 

Productiveness    of    soils    62 

Profits  of  carnation  growing  237 

Propagating  and  shipping  young  stock    71 
Propagating  bench,   brick-bottomed*..     78 
Popagating  bench,  construction  of....     77 
Propagating  bench,   shaded  with  cur- 
tains*          75 

Propagating  from  a  diseased  plant. . .     73 

Propagating  house    77 

Propagating   house,    even-span,    exte- 
rior*        158 

Propagating    house,    short    span    to 

South,   exterior* 79 

Propagating  house,   short  span   to 

South,    interior*    76 

Propagating  house,  temperature  of...     82 
Propagating  in   America,   early   prac- 
tices          73 

Propagating  media   79 

Propagating:   wood*    74 

Propagation   by   layering 85 

Propagation  from  cuttings  38 

Prosperity*    117 

Putty  knife*   81 

Raising  from  seed    196 

Red    spider*    128,129 

Remedies    and    preventives    for    stem 

rot    141 

Reproductive    organs*     196 

Richmond,   Ind.,   culture  In    266 

Rooting    cuttings,    propagation    by...     71 

Rose  Leaf  Extract 127,  195 

Royal   Horticultural    Society    of    Eng- 
land      249 

Rust    135 

Rust,  Bordeaux  Mixture  for   136 

Rust,   salt  solution  for   136 

Rust,  spraying  formulae  for 137 

Salt  solution  as  preventive  of  red  spi- 
der      130 

Salt  solution  for  rust  136 

Sand,    temperature    of    82 

Sand,  tool  for  firming*   80 

Sand,  use  of  in  propagating  80 

Sash,  cloth-covered,  use  of  83 

Sash    house,    original    types    of* 148 

Schmidt,  work  of  21 

Scotch   soot   47 

Scott,   Wm.,    bench   of,    showing  sup- 
ports*      115 

Seed,  raising  from    38,  196 

Seed,   sowing  of 199 

Seedling  raisers,    some   mistakes   of. .   206 

Seedlings,    Bizarre*    208,  209 

Seedlings,    colors,    selection  of 204 

Seedlings,   early    21 


294 


Index 


Seedlings,  first  exhibited  in  America..  20 

Seedlings,  planting  in  field 201 

Seedlings,  selection  of  parents 210 

Seedlings,  temperature  for  199 

Seedlings,  treatment  of,  for  winter 

flowering  203 

Seedlings,  vase  of  selected*  203 

Seedlings,  watering  201 

Selection  of  stock  in  digging 43 

Seymour,  Prof.,  quoted  134 

Shading  after  watering  cuttings  88 

Shading,  formula  for  110 

Shading  houses  before  planting  109 

Shading,  methods  of  44 

Shelmire,  W.  R.,  work  of  29 

Shelmire,  W.  R.,  biographical  sketch 

(Portrait)  281 

Shifting  young  plants  89 

Shipment,  plants  packed  for* 145 

Shipping  and  packing  field-grown 

plants  144 

Shipping  young  stock  71 

Sievers,  J.  H.,  biographical  sketch 

(Portrait)  283 

Simmons,  W.  P.,  work  of  27 

Size  231 

Soap  preparations  for  spraying  130 

Sod  Crusher,  Florist  Supply  Co.'s...  53 

Sod  in  soil  preparation  53 

Soil,  cultivation  of  in  benches 46,  114 

Soil.  English  method  of  preparing 41 

Soil,  Field  method  of  preparing 41 

Soil,  Hogg's  formula  for  preparing...  54 
Soil,  Maddock's  formula  for  preparing  54 
Soil,  potting,  composition  of,  for  young 

plants  53 

Soil,  preparation  of  for  greenhouse 

culture  41 

Soil  sterilizer,  filling  the  bench* 103 

Soil  sterilizer,  steam  pipes  in  position 

ready  for  filling  in  soil*  55 

Soil,  sterilizing  on  the  bench*  59 

Soil  used  when  shifting  plants  53 

Soils  49 

Soils,  bench,  preparation  of,  in  the 

field  52 

Soils,  field,  preparing  40 

Soils,  preparation  of  for  bench  culture  50 

Soils,  productiveness  of 62 

Soils,  selection  of  for  field  culture...  49 

Soils,  sterilizing  56 

Soot,  Scotch  47 

South,  growing  in  the 279 

Sports  and  variations 224 

Spot  137 

Spot,  fairy  ring  138 

Spraying  formulae  for  rust 137 

Staking  46,  m 

Stalk  borer  .  133 


PAGE 

Starr,   Chas.  T..   work  of    25 

Steam   boilers,    types    of    186 

Steam  heating  systems   182 

Stem   rot    1S8 

Stem  rot   remedies  and  preventives  for  141 

Sterilization,  steam  56 

Sterilizer    in    operation*     58 

Sterilizing    apparatus    56 

Sterilizing   soil   on   the    bench* 59 

Sterilizing  soils  56 

Stewart,  Prof.  F.  C.,  quoted   140 

Stock,   selection  of.   in  digging   43 

Stock,    young,    time    to   set   out 92 

Stock,    young,    treatment   of  prepara- 
tory to  planting  out 87 

Stopped  plants*    99 

Stopping  40 

Stopping  in  field 98 

Stopping  in  greenhouse   47 

Stopping  young  plants 90 

Store,    interior    of    a    wholesale    flor- 
ist's*       124 

Stuart,  Wm.,  quoted   67 

Sturgis,    Prof.    Wm.    C.,    quoted    143 

Sub- irrigation    170 

Sub-irrigation    and    surface    benches, 

comparison    of   results    from 176 

Sub-irrigation  bench       164 

Sub-irrigation    in    celery    districts    of 

Michigan  170 

Sub-irrigation  in  Europe  171 

Substance    230 

Sulphur  and  lime  formula  for  red  spi- 
der     129 

Sulphur  and    linseed   oil   mixture    for 

red  spider  129 

Sulphur  and  tobacco  mixture  for  red 

spider    130 

Summer  blooming,    carnations  for 189 

Summer  treatment  of  young  plants..     92 

Supports  Ill 

Supports,  combination  method  of*. 46,  114 
Supports,  end,  of  iron,  for  stretching 

wire*   113 

Supports,  prices  of  113 

Supports,   wire   ring*    112 

Swayne,  Wm.,  work  of  27 

Tailby,  Jos.,  work  of  28 

Temperature  of  propagating  house ...     82 

Temperature  of  sand  82 

Temperature,  overhead  in  propagating 

house   83 

Temperature  under  benches'  in  propa- 
gating house  83 

Thompson,  J.  D.,  Carnation  Co.'s  es- 
tablishment*         37 

Thorpe,  John,  work  of  25 

Thrips,   tabaci*    131 

Tile  bench,  ventilated 164 


295 


Index 


PAGE 

Tile,  sub-irrigation*    174 

Time  to  pollinate  199 

Time  to  set  out  young  stock  in  field.     92 

Tobacco  dust   127 

Tobacco,    evaporating   in   propagating 

house 83 

Tobacco   for  fumigating    48 

Tobacco  mixture  127 

Topping  in  greenhouse  47 

Traits    and   peculiarities    221 

Treatment  after  benching  until  plants 

are    in    bloom    Ill 

Tying  and  staking  46 

U-bar,  new  galvanized  iron,  construc- 
tion*       159 

Variations  and  sports   224 

Varieties,   bedding    190 

Varieties,  early,  in  America  22 

Ventilating  forcing  house  154 

Viola  Allen*    116 

Voorhees,    Edward   B.,    quoted    62 

Ward,  C.  W.,  work  of  29 

Watering  08 

Watering  bench   after   planting    44 


PAGE 

Watering  freshly  potted  cuttings   88 

Watering  seedlings    201 

Weber,    Henffy,     biographical    sketch 

(Portrait)*   273,  274 

White  carnations,  types  of*   213 

White    flowers,    ideal    206 

Who  shall  grow  carnations? 233 

Wild  state   17 

Window,   a  wholesale   florist's* 93 

Winter  culture  in  England,  origin  of.     20 

Wire-netting   for   supporting    114 

Wiring    Ill 

Witterstsetter,  Richard,  work  of 29 

Witterstaetter,     Richard,     biographical 

sketch  (Portrait)   278 

Wood  ashes  66 

Wood   best  for  propagating    74 

Woods,  best  for  posts  and  bench  con- 
struction    161 

Worms,  cut 132 

X.   L.   All   compound  for  thrips 132 

Yellow  flowers,  difficulty  of  obtaining.  206 

Yellow  varieties* 215 

Zeller,      Chas.,      biographical      sketch 
(Portrait)     289 


296 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


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